SECOND 
PAN-AMERICAN  SCIENTIFIC  CONGRESS 


TO  BE  HELD  IN  WASHINGTON 
DECEMBER  27,  1915-JANUARY  8,  1916 


PRELIMINARY   PROGRAM 


DEPARTMENT  OF  STATE 
APRIL  15,  1915 


HEADQUARTERS:  PAN- AMERICAN  UNION 
WASHINGTON,  D.  C. 


SECOND 
PAN-AMERICAN  SCIENTIFIC  CONGRESS 


TO  BE  HELD  IN  WASHINGTON 
DECEMBER  27,  1915-JANUARY  8,  1916 


PRELIMINARY    PROGRAM 


DEPARTMENT  OF  STATE 
APRIL  15,  1915 


HEADQUARTERS:   PAN-AMERICAN  UNION 
WASHINGTON,  D.  C. 


INDEX   OF  SECTIONS. 


Page. 

I.  Anthropology 11 

II.  Astronomy,  Meteorology,  and  Seismology 13 

III.  Conservation  of  Natural  Resources;  Agriculture;  Irrigation  and 

Forestry 15 

IV.  Education 18 

V.  Engineering 27 

VI.  International  Law,  Public  Law,  and  Jurisprudence 32 

VII.  Mining  and  Metallurgy ;  Economic  Geology  and  Applied  Chemistry  36 

VIII.  Public  Health  and  Medical  Science 41 

IX.  Transportation,  Commerce,  Finance,  and  Taxation 45 

(3) 


539566 


NOTE. 

The  Governing  Board  of  the  Pan-American  Union  at  its  meeting  on  April  7 
signally  honored  the  Second  Pan-American  Scientific  Congress  by  unanimously 
passing  a  resolution  authorizing  the  use  of  its  beautiful  building  for  the 
offices  and  sessions  of  the  Congress.  The  Board  also,  in  response  to  the 
request  of  the  President  and  Secretary  of  State  of  the  United  States,  and  in 
recognition  of  the  fact  that  this  Congress  is  to  be  a  great  Pan-American 
gathering,  authorized  the  Director  General  of  the  Pan-American  Union  to  act 
as  Secretary  General  thereof.  Government  officials,  delegates,  savants,  educa- 
tional institutions,  scientific  societies,  and  others  interested  are,  therefore, 
requested  .to  address  all  communications  concerning  the  Congress  to  the 
"Secretary  General,  Pan-American  Scientific  Congress,  Pan-American  Building, 
Washington,  D.  C."  Cable  address,  "PAU,  Washington,  D.  C." 

Organization  officers  of  the  Congress: 
JOHN  BARRETT,  Secretary  General. 
GLEN  LEVIN  SWIGGETT,  Assistant  Secretary. 

(4) 


PROGRAM 

OF  THE 

SECOND  PAN-AMERICAN  SCIENTIFIC  CONGRESS, 

TO  BE  HELD  IN 

WASHINGTON,  D.  C.,  U.  S.  A., 

DECEMBER  27,  1915-JANUARY  8,  1916. 


ORGANIZATION. 


ARTICLE  1.  In  accordance  with  the  resolutions  of  the  First  Pan- 
American  Scientific  Congress,  held  in  Santiago,  Chile,  December 
25, 1908,  to  January  5,  1909,  a  second  Pan-American  Scientific  Con- 
gress will  meet  in  the  city  of  Washington  in  the  month  of  December, 
1915,  under  the  auspices  of  the  Government  of  the  United  States. 

The  Congress  will  open  on  Monday,  December  27,  1915,  and 
adjourn  on  Saturday,  January  8,  1916. 

ART.  2.  The  organization  and  procedure  of  the  Second  Congress 
shall  be  in  charge  of  an  Executive  Committee,  composed  of,  first, 
members  appointed  by  the  First  Congress  at  Santiago;  second,  of 
members,  elected  by  the  said  committee. 

The  Executive  Committee. 

WILLIAM  PHILLIPS,  A.  B.,  Third  Assistant  Secretary  of  State, 
Chairman  ex  officio. 

JAMES  BROWN  SCOTT,  J.  U.  D.,  Secretary,  Carnegie  Endowment 
for  International  Peace,  Vice  Chairman. 

WILLIAM  H.  WELCH,  M.  D.,  LL.  D.,  President,  National  Acad- 
emy of  Sciences,  Honorary  Vice  Chairman. 

JOHN  BARRETT,  LL.  D.,  Director  General,  Pan-American  Union. 

W.  H.  BIXBY,  Brigadier  General,  U.  S.  A.,  Retired. 

PHILANDER  P.  CLAXTON,  LL.  D.,  Commissioner  of  Education. 

WILLIAM  C.  GORGAS,  M.  D..  Sc.  D.,  Surgeon  General,  U.  S.  A. 

(5) 


WILLIAM  H.  HOLMES,  B.  S.,  Head  Curator,  Smithsonian  Insti- 
tution. 

HENNEN  JENNINGS,  C.  E.,  former  President,  London  Institu- 
tion Mining  and  Metallurgy. 

GEORGE  M.  EOMMEL,  B.  S.,  Chief,  Animal  Husbandry  Division, 
Bureau  of  Animal  Industry,  Department  of  Agriculture. 

L.  S.  ROWE,  Ph.  D.,  President,  American  Academy  of  Political 
and  Social  Science. 

ROBERT  S.  WOODWARD,  Ph.  D.,  President,  Carnegie  Institution 
of  Washington. 
Organization  Officers : 

JOHN  BARRETT,  LL.  D.,  Secretary  General. 

GLEN  LEVIN  SWIGGETT,  Ph.  D.,  Assistant  Secretary. 

Address: 

Pan-American  Union,  Washington,  D.  C. 

ART.  3.  The  Executive  Committee  shall  nominate  the  president 
and  two  or  more  vice  presidents  of  the  Congress  and  shall  appoint 
the  secretary  general  and  such  assistant  secretaries  as  may  be  neces- 
sary. 

The  Executive  Committee  shall  appoint  interpreters,  clerks  for 
the  secretary's  office,  and  such  other  employees  as  may  be  necessary. 

The  Executive  Committee  shall  appoint  honorary  presidents  and 
vice  presidents  to  be  selected  from  the  participating  countries. 

The  secretary  general  shall  be  the  executive  officer  of  the  Execu- 
tive Committee  and  shall  have  charge,  in  cooperation  with  the 
committee,  of  the  preparations  and  arrangements  for  the  Congress. 
He  shall  also  conduct  correspondence,  supervise  expenditures,  and 
perform  such  other  duties  as  may  be  assigned  to  him  by  the  Execu- 
tive Committee. 

The  assistant  secretary,  in  the  absence  of  the  secretary  general, 
shall  have  authority  to  perform  the  duties  of  the  secretary  general. 

ART.  4.  The  Executive  Committee  shall  designate  such  com- 
mittees as  may  be  necessary. 

The  Executive  Committee  shall  designate  nine  of  its  members  to 
serve  as  chairmen  of  the  nine  main  program  sections  of  the  Con- 
gress. Each  member  of  the  Executive  Committee  so  designated 
shall  nominate  the  members  of  his  section  committee  and  shall 
select  the  chairmen  for  its  various  subsections.  The  chairman  of 
each  section  shall  be  a  member  ex  officio  of  each  subsection  com- 
mittee. 


ART.  5.  The  duties  of  the  Executive  Committee,  in  cooperation 
with  the  secretary  general,  are : 

1.  To  arrange  for  the  Second  Congress  and  participation  by 
the  Government  of  the  United  States,  the  universities,  and  other 
scientific,  national,  and  foreign  corporations. 

2.  To  take  steps  to  secure  the  appointment  of  committees  at  the 
capitals  of  the  American  States  by  the  participating  governments, 
the  duties  of  which  committees  shall  be  to  cooperate  in  the  prepa- 
rations for  the  Congress ;  to  prepare  lists  of  the  persons  to  be  in- 
vited to  participate  in  its  proceedings;  to  procure  an  adequate 
representation  from  the  several  countries,  and  to  suggest  such 
questions  as,  because  of  their  evident  American  interest,  should  be 
submitted  to  the  Congress. 

3.  To  prepare  a  list  of  members  of  the  Congress  in  conformity 
with  the  provisions  of  Article  9. 

ART.  6.  After  the  election  of  the  officers  of  the  Congress,  the  Ex- 
ecutive Committee  shall  act  under  their  direction,  but  shall  reassume 
its  original  functions  after  the  adjournment  of  the  Congress.  It 
shall  then  have  charge  of  the  publication  of  the  proceedings  of  the 

Congress. 

Sections. 

ART.  7.  The  following  are  the  sections  into  which  the  Congress 
will  be  divided,  alphabetically  arranged : 
I.  Anthropology. 
II.  Astronomy,  Meteorology,  and  Seismology. 

III.  Conservation  of  Natural  Resources,  Agriculture,  Irri- 

gation, and  Forestry. 

IV.  Education. 
V.  Engineering. 

VI.  International  Law,  Public  Law,  and  Jurisprudence. 
VII.  Mining  and  Metallurgy,  Economic  Geology,  and  Ap- 
plied Chemistry. 

VIII.  Public  Health  and  Medical  Science. 
IX.  Transportation,  Commerce,  Finance,  and  Taxation. 

Section  Committees. 

ART.  8.  The  section  committees  shall  hold  separately  such  meet- 
ings as  they  may  deem  necessary  for  the  determination  of  the  mat- 
ters submitted  to  them. 

Each  section  committee  may  be  subdivided  into  two  or  more 
subsection  committees  when  deemed  necessary,  and  two  or  more 
subsection  committees  may  become  a  single  committee. 


8 

It  shall  be  the  duty  of  each  section  committee,  in  cooperation 
with  the  secretary  general — 

I.  To  invite  the  preparation  of  papers  on  topics  deemed  of 
special  interest  to  the  Congress ;  to  prepare  a  list  of  the 
papers  received,  and  to  present  a  program  for  each 
session  of  the  sections  and  subsections  under  its 
charge. 
II.  To  prepare  the  register  of  the  members  of  its  section. 

III.  To   receive  and  classifjr  such  statements,  studies,   and 

communications  as  are  sent  to  the  section,  and  to  des- 
ignate the  reporting  member  thereof. 

IV.  To  make  a  report  to  the  section  of  the  papers  that  are 

not  to  be  read  by  their  authors. 
V.  To  organize  the  section  and  subsections. 
VI.  To  receive  the  papers  of  the  respective  section  and  sub- 
sections and  to  prepare  them  for  publication. 

Members  of  the  Congress. 

ART.  9.  The  following  persons  will  be  members  of  the  Congress: 

I.  The  official  delegates  of  the  countries  represented. 
II.  The  representatives  of  the  universities,  institutes,  socie- 
ties, and  scientific  bodies  of  the  countries  represented. 
III.  Such  persons  in  the  countries  participating  in  the  Con- 
gress as  may  be  invited  by  the  Executive  Committee, 
with  the  approval  of  the  countries  represented. 
ART.  10.  All  properly  accredited  members,  upon  the  presentation 
of  credentials,  shall  receive  from  the  secretary  general  an  appro- 
priate membership  card. 

ART.  11.  All  members  of  the  Congress  shall  be  entitled  to  attend 
its  sessions,  to  take  part  in  the  debates,  and  to  receive  a  copy  of  such 
publications  as  the  Executive  Committee  may  issue. 

ART.  12.  Americans  who  are  prominent  in  the  field  of  science  may 
be  appointed  honorary  members  of  the  Second  Pan-American 
Scientific  Congress,  whenever  the  Executive  Committee  deem  proper 
to  confer  this  honor  upon  them. 

WILLIAM  PHILLIPS, 

Chairman. 


RULES  OF  THE  CONGRESS. 


I.  The  sessions  of  the  Congress  will  extend  over  a  period  of 
thirteen   days,   from   Monday,   December   27,   1915,  to    Saturday, 
January   8,   1916,  at  hours  to  be  announced.     The  sections  will 
meet  simultaneously  on  each  day;  and  the  arrangement  of  the  pro- 
gram will  be  in  charge  of  the  chairman  and  reporting  member  of 
each  section,  in  consultation  with  the  secretary  general. 

II.  The  time  to  be  allowed  for  the  presentation  and  discussion  of 
each  paper  will  be  determined  by  the  several  section  committees, 
after  receipt  of  papers  and  reports ;  preference  will  be  given  to  those 
subjects  upon  which  the  papers  submitted  are  most  important  or 
useful  to  Pan- American  countries  in  general. 

III.  In  view  of  the  great  number  of  papers  to  be  submitted,  they 
should  be  as  concise  as  possible.     It  is  desirable  that  each  paper 
shall  be  typewritten.     They  may  be  accompanied  by  illustrations 
and  tabular  matter  to  clarify  and  shorten  descriptions. 

IV.  It  is  suggested  that  illustrations  be  limited  in  number,  and  be 
submitted  upon  sheets  not  over  10  inches  by  22  inches  (25  cm.  by 
56  cm.)  including  the  border,  or  9  inches  by  21  inches  (23  cm.  by  53 
cm.)  inside  the  border. 

V.  Each  paper  should  be  accompanied  by  a  resume  of  not  more 
than  1,500  words,  followed  by  a  footnote  giving  the  bibliography  of 
the  subject  to  include  references  to  important  original  papers  and 
sources  of  information  referred  to  in  the  paper. 

VI.  In  view  of  the  desire  to  take  full  advantage  of  the  great 
progress  of  recent  years,  it  is  suggested  that  the  papers  submitted 
have  special  reference  to  the  trend  of  recent  progress  and  to  the 
probable  development  of  the  immediate  future. 

VII.  Papers   descriptive   of    special   works,    and   largely   state- 
ments of  facts,  should  be  restricted  to  the  particular  work  under 
consideration,  and  should  give  as  much  detail  as  is  possible. 

VIII.  All  resolutions  presented  in  plenary  session  shall  imme- 
diately be  referred  to  the  Executive  Committee,  which  committee 
shall  make  report  thereon  to  the  Congress. 

IX.  All  resolutions  presented  to  sectional  meetings  shall  first  be 
referred  to  the  subcommittee  in  charge  of  the  section. 

2  (9) 


10 

X.  The  official  languages  of  the  Congress  will  be  the  Spanish, 
the  Portuguese,  the  French,  and  the  English. 

XI.  In  order  to  enable  the  officers  of  the  Congress  to  prepare  for 
its  labors,  it  is  essential  that  the  authors  of  papers  shall  forward 
their  papers  to  be  received  by  the  secretary  general  not  later  than 
November  1,  1915. 


PROG  RAM 

OF  THE 

SECOND  PAN-AMERICAN  SCIENTIFIC  CONGRESS. 


It  is  the  hope  of  the  Executive  Committee  to  give  to  the  Second  Pan-American  Scientific 
Congress  the  character  of  a  series  of  international  conferences.  In  order  to  con- 
centrate attention  upon  those  questions  which  are  of  greatest  interest  to  all  the 
republics  of  America,  delegates  are  requested  to  prepare  papers  on  some  aspect  of 
the  general  topics  and  questions  submitted  below. 


SECTION  I. 


Anthropology. 
Dr.  HOLMES,  Chairman. 
I.  Physical  Anthropology. 

(a)  Origin  of  man;  his  place  in  the  scheme  of  nature;  prob- 

lems of  evolution,  migration,  geography,  chronology. 

(b)  Development  of  the  individual  from  the  embryo  through 

childhood  to  full  maturity;  involution  of  the  individ- 
ual and  death. 

(c)  The  races,  their  differentiation,  physical  characteristics, 

fertility,  physiology;   admixtures,  tendencies. 

(d)  Eugenics :  proposed  measures  for  physical  betterment. 

(e)  Pathology;  geographical  distribution  of  disease,  racial 

characteristics,  effects  on  progeny  and  race. 

(/)  Racial  position  and  antiquity  of  the  American  aborig- 
ines; physical  modifications  due  to  changes  in  social, 
political,  and  industrial  conditions;  results  of  admix- 
ture with  other  races. 

(g)  The  racial  elements  now  entering  into  the  composition 
of  the  American  peoples  as  a  whole ;  progress  and  tend- 
encies of  amalgamation ;  possibilities  of  intelligent  and 
and  effective  direction  of  the  processes. 

(h)  Methods  of  research,  record,  and  display:  Anthro- 
pometry, instruments. 

II.  Ethnology.  The  social   and  political  groups,  stocks,  tribes, 
clans,  societies,  families ;  languages,  habits,  customs,  arts,  industries, 
religion,  esthetics. 

III.  Archeology.  The  various  lines  of  research  opened  up  by  the 
study  of  the  tribes  are  continued  indefinitely  into  the  past  by  the 

(H) 


12 

researches  of  this  branch.  The  many  topics  for  discussion  include 
those  especially  which  relate  to  the  chronology  of  the  American 
race,  and  the  evolution  of  its  culture. 

Although  world  anthropology  in  all  its  phases  may  be  considered 
by  the  Congress  with  profit,  it  is  assumed  that  chief  interest  will 
center  in  the  American  branches  of  the  subject,  and  especially  in  its 
more  strictly  Pan-American  phases.  To  the  latter  belong  (1)  prob- 
lems of  the  aboriginal  peoples,  their  history,  present  status,  and 
possible  future;  (2)  problems  relating  to  the  complex  of  races  and 
nationalities  now  constituting  the  Pan-American  populations.  The 
present  period  is  witnessing  the  phenomena  of  migration,  con- 
quest, and  race  rebuilding  on  a  scale  unparalleled  in  history,  and 
the  problems  arising  with  regard  to  the  trend  and  possible  outcome 
are  among  the  most  important  that  science  has  to  consider. 

INTERNATIONAL  CONGRESS  OF  AMERICANISTS. 

It  has  been  arranged  that  the  Nineteenth  International  Congress  of 
Americanists  shall  meet  in  Washington  during  the  same  week  with 
the  Pan-American  Scientific  Congress,  so  that  joint  conferences  can 
be  held  for  the  discussion  of  subjects  of  common  interest  to  mem- 
bers of  the  two  organizations.  It  is  expected  that  such  joint  meet- 
ings will  be  arranged  for  especially  between  the  Congress  of  Ameri- 
canists, which  deals  largely  with  anthropology  and  the  anthro- 
pology section  of  the  Pan- American  Congress.  This  will  be  espe- 
cially advantageous  since  a  large  number  of  students  from  all  parts 
of  America,  as  well  as  from  the  Old  World  interested  in  these 
branches,  will  thus  be  brought  together  on  common  ground. 

The  arrangement  of  the  joint  programs  for  the  presentation 
of  the  papers  will  be  placed  in  the  hands  of  a  joint  committee  of 
the  two  congresses,  which  committee  will  arrange  for  the  publica- 
tion of  the  same. 

Since  it  is  planned  that  the  section  of  anthropology  shall  hold 
its  meetings  or  conferences  for  the  discussion  of  the  problems 
which  it  has  to  consider  jointly  with  the  International  Congress  of 
Americanists,  it  is  assumed  that  the  program  can  not  be  arranged 
save  in  its  general  scope,  as  indicated  above,  until  the  program 
committees  of  the  two  congresses  meet.  The  Americanist  Congress 
concerns  itself  especially  with  American  problems,  and  more  espe- 
cially with  those  which  relate  to  the  aboriginal  peoples,  but  the  dis- 
cussions may  extend  also  to  history,  geography,  institutions,  govern- 
ment, etc.,  all  of  which  topics  are  of  particular  concern  to  Pan- 
America. 


SECTION  II. 


Astronomy,  Meteorology,  and  Seismology. 

Dr.  WOODWARD,  Chairman. 
A.  ASTRONOMY  AND  GEODESY. 

I.  Problems  of  International  Interest  in  Astronomy. 

II.  Problems  of  International  Interest  in  Geodesy. 

Under  these  topics  will  be  considered  among  other  questions  the 
following : 

1.  A  new  determination  of  the  moon's  parallax  from  simultaneous 
observations  on  the  same  meridian. 

2.  The  measurement  of  a  system  of  primary  triangulation  extend- 
ing from  Alaska  to  Patagonia. 

3.  The  desirability  and  feasibility  of  extending  a  gravimetric 
survey  to  cover  the  American  continents. 

B.  METEOROLOGY  AND  SEISMOLOGY. 

I.  General  Meteorology. — Physics  of  the  atmosphere ;  general  cir- 
culation; laboratory  methods;  position  of  meteorology  among  the 
sciences. 

II.  Weather  Phenomena. — Such  as  general  storms,  cold  waves, 
thunderstorms,  West  India  hurricanes,  hydrometeors,  etc.     Correla- 
tions of  weather  in  widely  separated  regions. 

III.  Weather  Forecasting. — Methods  and  principles;  organization 
of  a  telegraphic  weather  service ;  distribution  of  forecasts  and  warn- 
ings;  forecasts  for  special  industries,  etc.;   long-range  forecasts; 
classification  of  weather  types. 

IV.  Agricultural   Meteorology. — Relations   of   weather   and   cli- 
mate; applications  of  meteorological  statistics  to  agriculture  and 
other  rural  industries,  including  animal  husbandry. 

V.  Climatology  and  Climatography. — Methods  and  principles  of 
climatology;    climatic   fluctuations;    climatography    of   particular 
regions  or  places. 

VI.  Aerology. — Investigations  of  the  free  air  by  means  of  kites 
and  balloons,  observations  of  meteors,  etc.     Results  and  application. 

VII.  Solar  and  Terrestrial  Radiation. — Methods  of  observation, 
results,  and  application. 

VIII.  River  Hydraulics. — River  stage  prediction  and  flood  warn- 
ings ;  factors  determining  the  regimen  of  rivers. 

IX.  Instruments  and  Units  of  Measurement  in  Meteorology  and 
Seismology. 

(13) 


14 

X.  Meteorological  and  Seismological  Organizations  in  the  Pan- 
American  Countries. 

It  is  especially  desired  that  every  Pan-American  country  submit 
written  reports  on  the  present  condition,  needs  and  prospects  of  me- 
teorological and  seismological  work  in  its  own  territory.  For  the 
sake  of  uniformity,  it  is  suggested  that  each  report  contain  a  list  of 
all  meteorological  and  seismological  stations  now  actually  in  opera- 
tion within  the  several  countries,  including  unofficial  stations,  to- 
gether with  their  geographical  coordinates  and  their  altitudes  above 
sea  level;  also  a  classification  of  these  stations,  as  far  as  may  be  prac- 
ticable, with  respect  to  the  scope  of  their  observations.  The  reports 
should  include  information  as  to  the  places  where  daily  weather  maps 
are  published  in  each  country ;  the  extent  and  character  of  the  work 
carried  on  in  weather  forecasting,  the  issue  of  storm  warnings,  and 
river-stage  prediction ;  and  the  titles  of  all  publications  in  which  the 
results  of  meteorological  and  seismological  observations  currently 
appear.  Lastly,  they  should  include  a  list  of  the  longer  meteorologi- 
cal and  seismological  records  known  to  exist  in  each  country,  whether 
in  printed  form  or  in  manuscript. 

It  is  expected  that  this  series  of  reports  will  furnish  the  basis  for 
a  general  discussion  on  the  subject  of  meteorological  and  seismo- 
logical organization  in  the  Americas,  especially  with  a  view  to  secur- 
ing more  uniform  methods  and  closer  cooperation. 


SECTION  III. 


Conservation  of  Natural    Resources,  Agriculture,  Irrigation,  and 

Forestry. 

Mr.  ROMMEL,  Chairman. 

I.  Conservation  of  Mineral  Resources. 

II.  Conservation  of  Forests. 

III.  Conservation  of  Water  for  Power. 

IV.  Irrigation. 

V.  Conservation  of  the  Animal  Industry. 
VI.  Conservation  of  the  Plant  Industry. 
VII.  Marketing  and  Distribution  of  Agricultural  Products. 

I.  Conservation  of  Mineral  Resources. — Under  this  topic  the  sec- 
tion will  discuss  in  its  broadest  phases  the  conservation  of  the  min- 
eral resources  of  the  American  Continents  for  present  needs  as  well 
as  for  future  generations.    It  is  especially  desirable  to  know  what 
steps  are  being  taken  in  the  different  American  countries  to  avoid 
waste  in  the  utilization  of  natural  resources.    This  topic  should  cover 
the  conservation  and  utilization  for  the  best  interests  of  mankind  of 
coal,  petroleum,  asphalt,  potash,  nitrates,  salt,  sulphur,  and  of  the 
ores  of  iron,  copper,  lead,  zinc,  tin,  nickel,  cobalt,  vanadium,  phos- 
phorus, gold,  silver,  platinum,  and  radium  and  other  mineral  prod- 
ucts used  in  manufacture,  commerce,  or  agriculture. 

II.  Conservation  of  Forests. — The  subject  of  forest  conservation 
is  attracting  attention  in  all  American  countries.     In  some,  as  in 
the  United  States,  it  has  become  extremely  important  and  large 
government  projects  have  been  inaugurated  to  conserve  the  supply 
of  available  timber  and  to  increase  the  forest  areas  by  artificial 
plantings.    The  question  naturally  occurs  as  to  the  extent  of  such 
a  condition  generally  throughout  the  Western  Hemisphere.     The 
proper  utilization  of  the  supply  of  mahogany  for  example,  or  the 
utilization  of  the  rubber  forests  to  obtain  a  maximum  output  and 
to  remove  possible  danger  of  actual  extermination  of  the  species,  are 
topics  which  will  readily  occur  to  persons  interested.    The  coopera- 
tion of  private  interests  with  those  of  the  public,  and  the  interest  in 
efficient   lumbering   and  utilization   of  by-products,   are   also   im- 
portant subjects.     Under  this  topic  should  be  included  all  trees 
useful  for  the  production  of  lumber,  rubber,  tanning  materials,  dye- 
stuffs,  gums,  drugs,  and  other  products  used  in  manufacture,  com- 
merce, or  agriculture. 

(15) 


16 

There  should  be  included  in  the  consideration  of  this  topic  all 
useful  trees  which  comprise  the  forest  area  and  are  not  therefore 
strictly  speaking  cultivated  crops,  although  some  of  them  may  have 
been  artificially  planted.  Plantations  of  fruit,  nuts,  coffee,  cacao, 
rubber  trees,  etc.,  which  are  cultivated  as  long  as  the  trees  .are 
productive,  are,  strictly  speaking,  cultivated  crops  and  should  be 
considered  under  the  topic,  The  Conservation  of  the  Plant  Industry. 

III.  The  Conservation  of  Water  for  Poiver. — Under  this  subject  it 
is  desired  to  consider  all  conservation  and  utilization  of  water  power 
with  a  view  to  the  best  interests  of  mankind.     This  topic  should 
include  the  utilization  of  water   power   for  manufacturing,   for 
hydroelectric  purposes  and  for  electrochemistry.     The  utilization 
for  power  of  water  which  is  a  by-product  of  the  operation  of  mines, 
canals,  and  drainage  systems  should  be  also  considered. 

The  constructional  and  other  engineering  features  of  water 
power  are  to  be  treated  under  Section  V. 

IV.  Irrigation. — This  topic  should  include  the  conservation  and 
proper  use  of  water  for  irrigation,  the  use  of  irrigation  waters  as 
sources  of  power,  laws  for  the  control,  regulation,  and  promotion 
of  irrigation  development  and  the  financing  of  irrigation  projects. 
The  question  of  irrigation  development  affects  the  agriculture  of 
an  enormous  area  in  the  Western  Hemisphere.    Different  countries 
have  attacked  this  problem  in  different  ways,  and  it  is  probable  that 
in  none  of  them  has  the  irrigation  development  reached  its  maxi- 
mum.   Not  only  are  there  large  quantities  of  surplus  waters  unutil- 
ized for  irrigating  purposes,  but  subterranean  waters  are  also  avail- 
able to  a  great  extent,  either  as  artesian  water  or  by  pumping. 

The  constructional  and  other  engineering  features  of  irrigation 
are  to  be  treated  under  Section  V. 

V.  The  Conservation  of  the  Animal  Industry. — The  animal  in- 
dustry is  possibly  the  leading  agricultural  industry  of  the  Western 
Hemisphere  and  on  its  conservation  largely  depends  the  permanency 
of  agriculture.    This  topic  should  be  developed  to  cover  the  animal 
industry  in  all  its  phases,  including  horses,  cattle,  sheep,  goats, 
swine,  llamas,  alpacas,  poultry,  and  other  animals  and  birds  useful 
to  mankind   as   sources  of   motive   power,   food,   clothing,   skins, 
feathers,  fertilizers,  fats,  oils,  or  other  products  used  in  manufac- 
ture, commerce,  or  agriculture. 

The  conservation  of  the  animal  industry  by  improved  methods  of 
production,  by  the  domestication  of  native  species  not  now  domes- 
ticated, and  by  the  control  of  predatory  animals  and  the  control  and 
eradication  of  animal  diseases,  insects,  pests,  and  parasites,  should 
be  treated. 


17 

VI.  The  Conservation  of  the  Plant  Industry. — The  plant  industry 
of  the  hemisphere  supplies  a  large  proportion  of  the  world's  cereals 
and  other  plant  products.     The  wheat,  cotton,  sugar,  coffee,  and 
fruit  reach  tremendous  totals,  and  the  success  of  the  year's  crop  of 
these  staples  in  the  American  countries  is  of  vital  importance  to  all 
mankind. 

Under  this  topic  the  section  will  discuss  the  plant  industry  in  all 
its  phases,  including  cereals,  forage  crops,  fruits,  nuts,  fiber  plants, 
sugar  crops,  rubber,  coffee,  cacao,  and  other  cultivated  plants, 
shrubs,  and  trees  useful  to  mankind  as  sources  of  food,  clothing, 
dyestuffs,  tanning  materials,  fats,  oils,  perfumes,  drugs,  fertilizers, 
and  other  products  used  in  manufacture,  commerce,  or  agriculture. 

It  is  suggested  that  methods  be  discussed  for  the  conservation  of 
the  plant  industry  by  the  use  of  improved  methods  of  production, 
by  the  use  of  native  plants  not  now  cultivated  and  by  the  control  of 
insects,  pests,  and  diseases. 

VII.  Marketing  and  Distribution  of  Agricultural  Products. — A 
phase  of  conservation  of  great  importance  is  the  reduction  of  waste 
in  the  marketing  and  distribution  of  agricultural  products.     The 
subject  does  not  necessarily  mean  the  elimination  of  the  middleman 
in  this  process.    Indeed  the  middleman  can  well  be  regarded  as  a 
useful  member  of  society.    There  is  much  evidence,  however,  that 
much  of  our  cost  of  marketing  and  distributing  agricultural  prod- 
ucts is  unnecessary  and  can  be  materially  reduced. 

The  discussion  of  this  topic  should  be  broadly  developed  to  show 
the  methods  of  marketing  of  leading  agricultural  products  of  the 
countries  represented  in  the  Congress,  tracing  the  various  steps  in 
the  process  from  the  time  the  producer  sells  his  product  until  the 
consumer  is  finally  reached.  The  utilization  of  selling  associations 
of  producers;  of  systems  of  grading,  classifying,  standardization 
and  warehousing  of  products,  controlled  by  producers  or  by  govern- 
ment: the  question  of  loans  to  facilitate  the  handling  of  crops  and 
other  agricultural  products;  of  the  best  methods  of  handling  these 
loans;  are  topics  of  the  highest  importance  to  every  agricultural 
country. 


SECTION  IV. 


Education. 

Dr.  CLAXTON,  Chairman. 

I.  PUBLIC  EDUCATION  IN  A  DEMOCRACY. 

(a)  Elementary  Education. 

(b)  Secondary  (or  intermediate)  Education. 

(c)  University  Education. 

(d)  Education  of  Women. 

II.  INTERNATIONAL  EDUCATION. 

(a)   Exchange  of  Professors  and  Students  between  countries. 

III.  TECHNICAL  EDUCATION. 

(a)  Engineering. 

(b)  Medical. 

(c)  Agricultural. 

(d)  Industrial. 

(e)  Commercial. 

I.  PUBLIC  EDUCATION  IN  A  DEMOCRACY. 

The  countries  associated  in  this  Congress  have  one  fundamental 
characteristic  in  common — all  maintain  a  democratic  (or  republican) 
form  of  government.  Despite  differences  of  climate,  racial  constitu- 
tion, industrial  conditions,  and  wealth,  all  have  the  same  problem 
which  lies  at  the  heart  of  the  national  life.  This  is  the  problem  of 
the  development  of  an  intelligent  citizenry  trained  to  appreciate 
and  to  preserve  republican  institutions.  Without  appropriate  forms 
of  public  education  constantly  readjusted  to  a  changing  physical 
and  economic  environment,  and  to  industrial  and  social  conditions, 
such  a  citizenry  can  hardly  be  secured.  All  agree  that  successful 
democracy  rests  on  education,  but  the  implications  and  applications 
of  the  doctrine  are  open  to  discussion. 

(a)  Elementary  education. — The  countries  associated  in  this 
Congress  have  established  a  certain  measure  of  public  elementary 
education.  A  corollary  to  public  elementary  education  is  its  support 
by  public  funds.  This  raises  the  further  questions  of  State  and  local 
taxation  for  educational  purposes,  the  ratio  of  school  taxation  to 
general  taxation,  and  other  similar  and  related  questions. 

Public  education  supported  by  public  funds  can  not  succeed  in 
giving  the  children  of  the  people  the  elements  of  knowledge  unless 
the  children  attend  school.  The  laws  of  the  different  countries  and 
of  the  several  States  of  some  of  these  countries  with  respect  to  com- 

(18) 


19 

pulsory  attendance  are  not  uniform,  but  the  feeling  grows  that  some 
form  of  compulsory  attendance  laws  are  necessary.  The  experience 
of  one  country  in  this  regard  can  not  fail  to  be  of  interest  to  all 
others. 

As  the  people's  schools  assume  wider  functions  and  are  relied 
upon  more  and  more  to  educate  for  citizenship  and  for  vocations  the 
importance  of  intelligent  and  adequate  supervision  to  the  end  that 
time  and  energy  may  be  used  to  better  advantage  becomes  more 
evident.  In  some  of  the  countries  participating  in  this  Congress, 
and  especially  in  the  United  States,  the  means  of  providing  this 
supervision  has  become  a  problem  of  great  importance  and  is  much 
discussed. 

1.  To  what  extent  should  elementary  education  be  supported  by 
local  taxation  and  to  what  extent  by  State  taxation?  What  should 
be  the  determining  factors  in  the  distribution  of  support? 

-2.  What  are  the  essential  elements  of  an  effective  compulsory 
school  attendance  law  ? 

3.  What  factors  determine  the  extent  and  scope  of  common  ele- 
mentary education? 

4.  What   place   should   industrial   training  have  in   elementary 
education? 

.">.  What  conditions  should  determine  the  curriculum  of  the  ele- 
mentary schools  of  any  community? 

6.  To  what  extent  should  the  curriculum  be  determined  by  State 
authorities  and  to  what  extent  by  local  authorities? 

7.  How  should  the  administration  of  elementary  schools  be  di- 
vided between  State  and  local  authorities? 

8.  Should  the  local  unit  of  administration  be  the  single  school 
district  or  some  larger  territory  ? 

9.  What  should  be  the  minimum  standard  of  preparation  for 
teadiers  of  elementary  schools  in  the  city?    Of  elementary  schools  in 
the  country?    What  are  the  most  effective  agencies  for  the  prepara- 
tion of  elementary  teachers  for  schools  of  each  kind  ? 

(b)  Secondary  education. — The  idea  that  secondary  education 
may  rightly  be  included  in  the  scheme  of  tax-supported  public  edu- 
cation is  relatively  new.  It  has  been  adopted  by  only  a  portion  of 
the  countries  to  participate  in  this  Congress.  The  advocates  of  tax- 
supported  secondary  education  believe  that  democracy  is  impossible 
without  the  extention  of  opportunities  for  advanced  training  to  all 
who  are  qualified  to  take  advantage  of  them.  Among  the  advocates 
of  public  secondary  education  there  is,  however,  a  difference  of 
opinion  concerning  the  range  and  extent  of  education  to  be  provided 
at  public  expense.  Is  vocational  education  a  proper  function  of 


20 

the  secondary  school,  or  should  its  functions  be  limited  to  general 
and  cultural  education  and  preparation  for  citizenship?  To  what 
proportion  of  the  youth  of  a  country  is  it  desirable  to  give  secondary 
education?  That  the  best  results  may  be  obtained  from  the  funds 
provided  for  the  support  of  the  schools,  and  that  the  time  of  the 
children  may  be  used  to  the  best  advantage,  it  is  necessary  that 
teachers  shall  be  prepared  for  the  work.  The  best  methods  of  edu- 
cating and  training  teachers  both  for  the  elementary  schools  and 
for  the  secondary  schools  is  still  a  question  for  careful  considera- 
tion and  discussion. 

1.  How  nearly  universal  should  high  school  education  be  in  a 
democracy  ? 

2.  What  should  be  the  primary  and  what  the  secondary  purpose 
of  high  school  education  ?    To  what  extent  should  courses  of  study 
in  the  high  school  be  determined  by  the  requirements  for  admission 
to  college,  and  to  what  extent  by  the  demands  of  industrial  and 
civic  life? 

3.  What  place  should  vocational  training  have  in  high  school 
education  ? 

4.  What  should  be  the  standards  of  preparation  for  teachers  of 
high  schools  ?    What  are  the  most  eif ective  agencies  for  the  prepara- 
tion of  high  school  teachers  ? 

(c)  University  education. — The  typical  university  of  the  coun- 
tries of  Central  and  South  America  is  a  State  institution.  The 
university  in  the  United  States  may  be  under  either  State  or  private 
control.  In  the  eastern  part  of  the  United  States  in  the  older  Com- 
monwealths, the  private  university  is  the  prevailing  type;  in  the 
more  recently  settled  West  and  Middle  West  the  stronger  institu- 
tions of  higher  learning  are  generally  State  universities.  The 
United  States,  being  a  federation  of  independent  Commonwealths, 
has  no  national  university,  as  it  has  no  national  system  of  educa- 
tion. State  education  is  under  the  control  of  the  constituent  States. 
The  organization  of  the  State  university  in  the  United  States  and 
its  relation  to  the  life  of  the  State  that  supports  it  are  matters  of 
great  interest  to  students  of  higher  education.  Probably  in  no  other 
country  has  such  direct  correlation  between  the  university  and  the 
activities  of  the  State  been  achieved. 

Both  private  and  State  universities  in  the  United  States  have  de- 
veloped types  of  management  not  known  to  the  universities  of  other 
countries.  Their  activities  are  closely  coordinated  by  means  of  a 
staff  of  administrative  officers,  of  whom  the  most  prominent  are  the 
president,  the  deans  of  the  various  schools  or  departments,  and  the 
registrar.  The  business  affairs  are  to  a  large  degree  separated  from 


21 

the  educational  concerns  of  the  university  and  handled  by  a  trained 
staff  of  business  officers.  The  office  of  university  president  in  the 
United  States  is  a  position  of  great  power  and  responsibility.  The 
president  is  the  director,  the  superintendent,  and  the  educational 
leader  of  the  institution;  and  likewise  the  focus  of  its  life.  In 
general  the  compactness  of  organization  of  the  typical  university  in 
the  United  States,  the  esprit  de  corps  which  prevails  among  its 
professors  and  students,  are  special  elements  of  strength.  In  certain 
of  the  newer  States  of  the  United  States  the  university  has  in  a  sense 
become  the  chief  servant  of  the  people  in  all  their  more  important 
interests.  Not  only  is  university  education  free  to  all  who  are  able 
to  avail  themselves  of  it,  but  the  university  carries  the  results  of 
its  scientific  investigations  directly  to  the  farmers  in  the  fields,  and 
the  factory  workers  in  the  shops.  The  legislative  and  economic 
problems  of  the  State  are  made  the  first  concern  of  the  trained  staff 
of  the  university.  Whether  it  is  the  proper  function  of  the  uni- 
versity to  direct  its  attention  thus  closely  to  the  practical  problems 
of  the  day  and  to  take  so  active  a  part  in  the  social  and  political  life 
of  the  community,  or  whether  it  should  devote  itself  more  exclusively 
to  the  pursuits  of  pure  science  without  reference  to  its  direct  and  con- 
temporary bearing,  is  a  matter  for  discussion. 

1.  Should  universities  and  colleges  supported  by  public  funds  be 
controlled  by  independent  and  autonomous  powers  or  should  they 
be  controlled  directly  by  central  State  authority  ? 

(d)  The  education  of  women. — The  propriety  of  extending  oppor- 
tunities for  all  types  of  education,  vocational,  professional,  and 
purely  cultural,  to  women  on  the  same  terms  as  to  men,  is  now 
generally  admitted  in  American  countries.  Whether  all  the  edu- 
cation of  women  should  be  in  separate  institutions,  or  whether  co- 
education should  generally  prevail,  is  nowhere  settled.  In  those 
countries  where  coeducation  has  developed  there  is  no  positive 
agreement  as  to  the  institutions  which  should  be  conducted  under 
this  policy.  Whether  coeducation  should  prevail  in  the  elementary 
and  higher  schools  and  not  in  the  secondary  schools,  or  whether 
it  should  be  in  force  in  the  elementary  and  secondary  and  not  in  the 
higher  institutions,  has  not  yet  been  determined  to  the  satisfaction 
of  all  educators  even  in  those  States  which  are  committed  to  coedu- 
cation. The  policy  of  segregation  in  higher  institutions  has  been 
tested  in  various  ways  in  many  of  the  countries  represented  in  this 
Congress.  It  is  not  the  purpose  of  this  memorandum  to  determine 
the  question.  The  experiences  of  each  country  should  furnish  val- 
uable data  bearing  upon  it. 

Among  the  new  subjects  which  have  been  developed  in  recent 


22 

years  and  now  take  rank  as  school  and  university  studies,  are  do- 
mestic science,  home  economics,  and  the  household  arts.  The  oldest 
profession  of  woman  is  the  profession  of  home  maker.  It  doubtless 
will  be  women's  principal  calling  as  long  as  homes  exist.  Home 
economics  and  domestic  science  in  the  schools  are  the  substitu- 
tion of  scientific  methods  for  the  apprenticeship  method  in  educa- 
tion for  home  making,  and  has  been  made  necessary  by  the  changes 
in  home  life  brought  about  by  modern  social  conditions.  Domestic 
science  and  arts  are  new  as  subjects  for  school  instruction.  The 
development  both  of  content  and  method  is,  for  the  most  part,  still 
to  come. 

1.  To  what  extent  is  coeducation  desirable  in  elementary  schools, 
high  schools,  colleges,  and  universities? 

2.  In  what  essential  features  should  the  education  of  women  differ 
from  the  education  of  men? 

3.  What  place  should  the  science  and  art  of  home  making  have  in 
the  education  of  women? 

II.  INTERNATIONAL  EDUCATION. 

(a)  Exchange  of  professors  and  students  between  the  universities 
of  the  United  States  and  Central  and  South  America. — The  mutual 
profit  to  be  derived  by  the  countries  associated  in  this  Congress  from 
a  better  knowledge  by  each  of  the  language,  history,  and  institutions 
of  the  others  can  not  be  over  emphasized.  The  interchange  of  ideas 
and  culture  between  Central  and  South  America  and  the  United 
States  will  lead  to  a  better  and  more  sympathetic  mutual  under- 
standing. Between  the  United  States  and  the  countries  of  Europe 
there  has  been  a  constantly  increasing  interchange  of  professors  and 
university  students.  American  students  visiting  the  universities 
of  France  and  Germany  have  brought  back  a  more  intimate  knowl- 
edge of  the  peoples,  institutions  and  ideals  of  these  countries. 
American  professors  in  their  universities  have  helped  to  give  them 
a  better  understanding  of  American  institutions,  ideals,  and  life. 
Distinguished  European  scholars  at  universities  in  the  United  States 
have  enabled  the  people  of  this  country  to  understand  various 
phases  of  European  life  in  a  way  and  to  a  degree  otherwise  impos- 
sible. Up  to  the  present  very  little  has  been  done  to  establish 
similar  relations  between  the  United  States  and  the  countries  of 
Central  and  South  America.  A  few  exchanges,  however,  already 
have  been  effected  and  there  are  tentative  plans  for  others.  This 
section  of  the  Congress  may  profitably  discuss  the  general  question 
of  international  academic  relations,  the  ways  and  means  for  pro- 


23 

moting  the  exchange  of  professors,  the  migration  of  students  from 
one  country  to  another,  and  the  best  arrangements  for  the  exchange 
of  professors  and  the  establishment  of  centers  of  information 
through  which  any  country  of  the  Americas  may  obtain  reliable  in- 
formation about  the  educational  institutions,  ideals,  and  policies  of 
the  others. 

1.  To  what  extent  is  an  exchange  of  students  and  professors  be- 
tween American  republics  desirable?     What  is  the  most  effective 
basis  for  a  system  of  exchange  ? 

2.  What  plans  should  be  adopted  in  order  to  secure  mutual  recog- 
nition of  technical  and  professional  degrees  by  American  republics? 

III.  TECHNICAL  EDUCATION. 

(a)  Engineering  education. — The  relative  importance  of  a  gen- 
eral training  in  engineering  branches  and  of  close  specialization  in 
a  single  branch  of  engineering  is  a  matter  of  much  importance 
which  should  be  discussed  by  the  Congress. 

1.  To  what  extent  may  college  courses  in  engineering  be  profit- 
ably supplemented  by  practical  work  in  the  shop?  To  what  extent 
may  laboratory  work  in  engineering  be  replaced  through  coopera- 
tion with  industrial  plants  ? 

(b)  Medical  education. — It  is  believed  that  State  control  of  higher 
education  is  in  general  more  effective  in  Central  and  South  America 
than  in  the  United  States.    This  is  shown  particularly  in  the  provi- 
sions in  force  in  the  various  countries  represented  in  this  Congress 
for  the  training  and  licensing  of  medical  practitioners.     The  high 
standing  of  the  medical  schools  of  Central  and  South  America  is  gen- 
erally recognized.     This  is  doubtless  due  in  large  measure  to  the 
fact  that  in  these  countries  the  State  has  assumed  the  responsi- 
bility for  medical  education  and  training  and  has  thus  enabled  the 
faculties  of  medical  schools  to  establish  high  standards  of  scholar- 
ship, and  enforce  stringent  regulations  for  the  practice  of  medicine. 
The  faculty  of  medicine  is  an  administrative  body  as  well  as  a 
teaching  staff.    It  tests  the  scholarly  attainments  of  the  students  to 
determine  their  progress  in  the  course,  and  conducts  the  examina- 
tions that  entitle  the  student  to  the  privilege  of  practicing  his  pro- 
fession.    It  is  also  empowered  by  the  State  to  make  regulations 
governing  the  practice  of  medicine  throughout  the  nation.    Thus  to 
a  certain  extent  it  directs  the  practitioner.     Compared  with  this 
excellent  and  effective  means  of  securing  and  maintaining  profes- 
sional standards,  the  methods  of  training  and  licensing  physicians 
in  the  United  States  seem  to  some  to  be  crude  and  badly  organized. 


24 

The  Commonwealths  of  the  United  States  have  not  yet  attempted 
to  control  medical  education,  consequently  there  is  much  disparity 
in  the  standards  of  medical  schools.  The  authority  of  the  State 
is  limited  to  the  issuance  of  the  license  to  practice.  Regulations 
governing  such  licenses  are  various  and  in  many  States  very  lax. 
The  question  of  whether  the  faculty  of  the  medical  school  should 
have  supervision  of  medical  education  and  practice  throughout  the 
State  is  one  involving  not  only  the  efficiency  of  medical  instruction, 
but  the  proper  scope  of  the  State's  authority  over  the  concerns  of 
the  individual.  It  is  both  a  scientific  and  a  political  question  such 
as  may  come  before  a  Congress  composed  of  representatives  of 
different  countries  and  different  sciences. 

1.  What  preparation  should  be  required  for  admission  to  medical 
schools?     What  should  be  the  minimum  requirements  for  gradua- 
tion?    What  portion  of  the  faculty  of  a  medical  school  should  be 
required   to   give   all   their   time   to   teaching   and   investigation? 
What  instruction  may  best  be  given  by  physicians  engaged  in  medi- 
cal practice? 

2.  Should  the  university  or  the  State  license  physicians  and  regu- 
late medical  practice? 

(c)  Agricultural  education. — Every  country  is  now  alive  to  the 
importance  of  formal  scientific  education  and  training  in  agricul- 
ture. The  more  lavishly  the  national  resources  have  been  used,  the 
more  pressing  has  become  the  necessity  for  scientific  agricultural 
education,  not  only  in  special  colleges  and  schools  of  agriculture, 
but  as  a  part  of  general  secondary  education.  In  connection  with 
the  last-mentioned  phase  of  education,  agriculture  takes  on  new  im- 
portance. It  is  not  merely  a  means  of  preserving  the  food  supply 
of  the  nation,  but  it  humanizes  and  vitalizes  the  life  of  people  en- 
gaged in  agriculture. 

In  the  United  States  the  scientific  study  of  agriculture  has  been 
put  upon  a  sound  footing,  largely  through  the  action  of  the  Federal 
Government.  The  foundation  of  colleges  of  agriculture  partly  sup- 
ported by  Federal  grants  was  the  first  step.  The  second,  of  still 
greater  influence  in  the  development  of  the  science,  was  the  estab- 
lishment of  experiment  stations  at  Government  expense.  These 
in  connection  with  the  State-supported  colleges  of  agriculture  are 
centers  of  stimulus  and  progress.  This  policy  of  the  Government 
of  the  United  States  and  the  policies  of  the  countries  of  Central 
and  South  America  will  be  interesting  topics  for  discussion  by  the 
Congress. 

1.  What  preparation  should  be  required  for  admission  in  State 
and  national  colleges  of  agriculture?  To  what  extent  should  the 


25 

courses  of  study  in  the  agricultural  college  be  theoretic  and  general, 
and  to  what  extent  practical  and  specific?  To  what  extent  should 
the  curriculum  of  any  such  college  be  determined  by  local  conditions  ? 

(d)  Industrial  education. — The  countries  of  the  Western  Hemi- 
sphere have  been  slower  than  those  of  Europe  to  appreciate  the 
necessity  for  industrial  training.    The  United  States  is  fast  becom- 
ing an  industrial  democracy.    The  same  trend  of  evolution  has  al- 
ready appeared  in  certain  countries  of  Central  and  South  America 
and  with  the  increase  in  population  will  soon  appear  in  all.     The 
educational  philosophy  of  the  democracies  of  the  New  World  de- 
mands training  for  the  occupations  followed  by  the  majority  of  the 
people.     Moreover,  national  prosperity  depends  upon  such  training. 
Without  it,  it  is  impossible  to  meet  the  commercial  competition  of  the 
nations  of  Europe,  where  this  type  of  training  has  been  developed  to 
a  high  degree  of  efficiency.     It  is,  however,  as  yet  undecided  to  what 
extent  opportunities  for  industrial  training  should  be  included  in  sys- 
tems of  public  education.     If  secondary  education  is  to  be  provided 
generally  at  public  expense,  shall  it  include  industrial  training? 
Shall  training  for  the  simpler  forms  of  trades  be  introduced  into  the 
elementary  schools?     The  cooperation  of  public  schools  and  em- 
ployers of  labor  is  fundamental  for  the  creation  of  practical  schemes 
of  industrial  education.     In  the  United  States  the  latest  phase  of  the 
movement  for  industrial  education  has  led  to  an  effort  to  fit  the  in- 
dividual to  the  type  of  industry  best  suited  to  his  tastes  and  talents. 
Vocational  guidance,  by  wise  and  sympathetic  persons  who  are 
acquainted  both  with  industry  and  with  education,  is  claimed  to 
be  the  logical  corollary  of  industrial  education  in  a  democratic 
state. 

1.  What  should  be  the  place  of  industrial  education  in  the  school 
system  of  the  American  republics  ?  Should  it  be  supported  by  pub- 
lic taxation?  Should  it  be  considered  as  a  function  of  the  public 
school  system  ?  Should  it  be  given  in  a  separate  system  under  sepa- 
rate control?  How  and  to  what  extent  may  industrial  schools  co- 
operate with  employers  of  labor? 

(e)  Commercial  education. — Central   and   South   America   have 
done  more  to   foster  commercial  education  than  has  the  United 
States.     The  commercial  schools  established  partly  to  rescue  South 
America  from  the  foreign  commercial  invasion  have  raised  the  social 
position  of  commerce  and  stimulated  initiative.    The  United  States 
has  as  yet  taken  comparatively  little  interest  in  commercial  educa- 
tion.    Although  there  has  been  training  under  private  auspices  for 
commercial  careers  for  nearly  a  century,  the  public  recognition  of 
commercial  education  has  had  to  wait  until  the  advocates  of  indus- 


26 

trial  training  had  proved  the  wisdom  of  vocational  schools.  The 
steadily  increasing  numbers  of  graduates  of  schools  and  colleges  en- 
tering commercial  pursuits  have  brought  home  to  educators  and 
laymen  alike  the  necessity  of  making  provisions  for  this  branch  of 
vocational  education.  Of  particular  interest  to  the  countries  asso- 
ciated in  this  conference  is  the  type  of  commercial  education  which 
will  fit  students  to  develop  the  commercial  relations  between  the 
United  States  and  the  countries  of  Central  and  South  America.  All 
signs  point  to  an  unprecedented  expansion  of  commercial  relations 
between  these  countries,  and  greater  approximation  of  their  com- 
mercial interests.  This  will  involve  a  more  intimate  common  knowl- 
edge of  commercial,  industrial,  and  social  ideals  and  conditions,  as 
well  as  of  geography,  history,  and  language.  This  important  topic 
is  worthy  of  the  especial  attention  of  the  Pan-American  Scientific 
Congress. 

1.  To  what  extent  should  commercial  education  be  included  in 
the  system  of  public  education?  What  should  be  the  character  of 
commercial  education  in  the  high  school  ?  What  should  be  the  char- 
acter of  commercial  education  in  the  college  and  university  1 


SECTION  V. 

Engineering. 
Gen.  BIXBY,  Chairman. 

A.  TRANSPORTATION  ROUTES  BY  LAND  AND  WATER. 

I.  Railways  and  Tramways. 

(a)  Location  and  Development  of  Mountain  Railroad  Trans 

portation  Routes. 

(b)  Desirability  and  practicability  of  establishing  a  uniform 

railroad  gauge  in  Pan- America,  and  especially  in  Cen- 
tral and  South  America. 

II.  Highway  and  Street  Construction  and  Maintenance. 
III.  Water  Transportation, 
(a)  Merchant  Marine. 
(&.)   River  Improvement  and  Transportation. 

(c)  Canal  Construction  and  Transportation. 

(d)  Bridges,  fixed  and  movable,  best  type  for  Pan- America. 

(e)  Port  Operations    (including  construction  of  piers  and 

quays). 
(/)   Seacoast  Shore  Protection. 

B.  ELECTRICAL  ENGINEERING. 

I.  Generation,  Transmission  and  Distribution  of  Electrical 

Energy. 
II.  Electricity  as  Motive  Power  for  Transportation  Lines. 

III.  General  Application  in  Lighting,  Industry,  Heating,  and 

Domestic  Use. 

IV.  Electro-Chemistry  (not  to  include  electro-metallurgy). 

V.  Electrical    Communication,   Telephony,   Telegraphy,    and 

Signaling. 
VI.  Codes  and  Standards. 

C.  IRRIGATION  AND  DRAINAGE. 

I.  Reservoirs. 
II.  Conduits  and  Drains. 

D.  SANITARY  ENGINEERING. 

I.  Sewers. 

II.  Disposal  of  Sewage  and  Garbage. 
III.  Street  Cleaning. 

E.  MUNICIPAL  WATER  SUPPLY. 

F.  MECHANICAL  ENGINEERING. 

G.  NOMENCLATURE. 

Under  the  above  topics,  special  attention  should  be  given  to  the 
following : 

A.  II.  Highway  and  Street  Construction. — Best  methods  of  con- 

(27) 


28 

struction  and  maintenance  as  shown  by  experience  to  meet  various 
traffic  conditions  and  especially  to  withstand  the  wear  and  tear  by 
motors  used  for  the  transportation  of  passengers  and  goods  over 
the  highways  and  streets  of  the  various  countries. 

A.  III.  Best  Model  of  Construction  for  shallow  draft  boats  and 
barges  for  general  transportation  purposes. — For  the  present  and  for 
many  years  to  come  the  inland  portions  of  the  Pan-American  States, 
in  reaching  each  other,  must  depend  largely  upon  a  mixed  transpor- 
tation by  shallow-draft  boats,  and  ocean  boats,  in  addition  to  railway 
transportation  within  each  of  the  countries  connected.  Under  such 
circumstances  it  is  extremely  desirable  to  affect  transfer  from  one 
transportation  line  to  the  adjoining  transportation  line  at  the  least 
possible  cost.  Such  transfer  operations  may  be  treated  incidentally 
under  the  head  of  "Waterways"  (A.  III.) ;  but  the  full  treatment  of 
such  trans-shipment  should  be  submitted  under  the  head  of  "Port 
Operations"  (A.  111(6)). 

Ill  (d).  Fixed  and  Movable  Bridges  for  all  uses. — Best  general 
types  for  the  various  conditions  found  in  Pan- America. 

Ill  (e).  Hydraulic  Works. — The  type  of  construction  best  adapted 
for  piers  and  quays  when  the  rivers  along  which  such  constructions 
are  to  be  made  are  of  great  depth  and  swift  current. 

(NOTE. — This  question  was  taken  up  originally  by  the  First  Con- 
gress but  was  referred  by  that  Congress  to  the  Second  Congress, 
which  is  now  in  preparation.) 

II  he  Allowable  Pressures  on  Deep  Foundations  of  bridge  piers, 
and  quay  walls  of  ports  and  high  buildings,  and  retaining  walls.     A 
summary  of  experience  in  each  country  to  be  analyzed  and  deductive 
conclusions  to  be  presented  by  the  general  reporter. 

Recent  Actually  Constructed  Harbor  and  Port  Works. — On  fluvial 
and  tidal  rivers,  mouths  of  rivers,  on  lakes  and  estuaries,  and  on 
steep  sea  slopes  and  exposed  shores. 

Briefly  summarized  history  of  the  employment  and  behavior  of 
concrete  and  reinforced  concrete  in  fresh  and  saline  waters  and 
under  the  servitudes  of  waves  in  exposed  locations. 

In  addition  to  the  above  principal  questions,  it  is  desirable  to 
receive  papers  on  the  more  general  subject  of  harbors  and  docks,  in- 
cluding graving  and  floating  docks,  lighthouses,  beacons,  illuminat- 
ing buoys,  submarine  signaling,  and  equipment  of  ports,  also  dredg- 
ing and  dredges  and  contracting  and  regulating  works  on  the  bars 
at  the  mouths  of  fluvial  and  tidal  rivers;  and  on  the  best  materials 
and  methods  of  harbor  and  port  constructions. 

III  (/).  Works  to  Protect  Sandy  Coasts  Against  the  Encroach- 
ments of  the  Sea. 


29 

B.  ELECTRICAL  ENGINEERING. 

B.  I.  Prime  movers  employed  in  generation,  whether  from  water 
power  or  steam.  If  from  water  power,  give  watershed  data,  run  off, 
heads  employed,  sizes  and  types  of  wheels,  types  of  governors,  etc., 
descriptions  of  dams,  flumes,  headgates,  sizes  of  generators,  voltage 
and  frequency,  station  apparatus,  transformers,  etc.  If  from  steam, 
state  what  fuel  used  and  description  of  boiler  plant  with  special 
reference  to  oil  as  fuel  supply. 

Transmission  and  distribution  lines  should  cover  type  of  struc- 
tures, kind  and  size  of  conductors,  spacing  between  supports,  voltage 
employed,  types  of  insulators,  switching  apparatus,  lightning  protec- 
tion, etc. 

Statements  of  labor,  material,  and  of  overhead  costs  are  especially 
desirable. 

B.  II.  Adaptation  of  electrical  energy  for  electrification  of  exist- 
ing or  proposed  steam  railway  lines,  or  lines  designed  for  interurban 
freight  and  passenger  service.  The  papers  should  consider  both 
direct  and  alternating  current  systems,  and  the  latter  should  include 
questions  of  single  or  multiphase  generation  and  distribution,  voltage 
and  frequency,  trolley  and  third-rail  contacts;  electric  locomotive, 
types,  sizes,  etc. 

Statements  of  labor,  material,  and  overhead  costs  are  especially 
desirable. 

B.  III.  Application  to  industrial  and  manufacturing  development 
as  prime  mover  in  factories  or  enterprises  requiring  power. 

The  use  of  electricity  for  light  is  subordinate  to  the  larger  and 
more  important  use  for  power  in  Central  and  South  America,  where 
coal  is  scarce  and  where  oil  and  water  power  are  abundant.  It 
would  be  well  to  cite  some  striking  industrial  application  of  power 
in  these  countries  and  to  bring  out  the  possibilities  of  refrigeration 
in  view  of  present  knowledge  and  experience. 

Statements  of  labor,  material,  and  overhead  costs  are  especially 
desirable. 

B.  IV.  Utilization  of  electric  power  in  chemical  reactions,  facili- 
tating many  of  the  most  difficult  and  costly  chemical  methods,  or 
supplanting  them  by  quick,  simple,  and  direct  methods  which  have  in 
some  cases  developed,  and  may  expect  to  further  develop,  new  reac- 
tions and  materials  not  at  present  manufactured.  This  large  and 
important  new  industrial  group  of  electrochemical  industries  in- 
cludes such  enterprises  as  the  fixation  of  atmospheric  nitrogen,  elec- 
trolysis of  water,  electrolysis  of  salt  into  other  sodium  salts,  such 
as  caustic  soda,  soda  ash  or  carbonate,  chlorine  bleaching  material, 
alkalies,  also  the  calcium  carbide  industry ;  the  making  of  artificial 
erraDhite,  etc. 


30 

Description  of  any  of  these  industries  should  include  methods  em- 
ployed, description  of  apparatus,  consumption  of  electrical  energy, 
etc. 

Statements  of  labor,  material,  and  overhead  costs  are  especially 
desirable. 

B.  V.  Electrical  Communication. — This  should  include  latest  prac- 
tice in  telephony  and  telegraphy  by  wire  lines  and  wireless ;  descrip- 
tion of  radio  stations  in  Pan- America,  including  engineering  details, 
wave  lengths,  submarine  cable  practice,  and  signaling,  etc. 

Statements  of  labor,  material,  and  overhead  costs  are  especially 
desirable. 

B.  VI.  Electrical  Codes  and  Standards. — This  topic  brings  out 
the  desirability  of  uniform  codes  and  standards  of  measurements, 
nomenclature,  and  practice,  concerning  which  the  North  American 
Engineering  Societies  are  approaching  complete  agreement. 

C.  The  Laws  and  Regulations  Regarding  the  Use  of  Water  in  all 
Pan-American  countries  which  present  papers  on  the  subject  of  irri- 
gation and  hydroelectric  powers.     The  present  status  of  legislation 
of  the  water  rights  should  be  given. 

(NOTE. — The  above  question  was  originally  brought  up  at  the 
First  Congress,  and  was  by  it  postponed  to  the  Second  Congress, 
now  under  preparation.) 

As  in  many  cases,  it  is  possible  and  advantageous  to  combine  elec- 
tric power  with  irrigation  works,  it  will  be  allowable  to  combine  in  a 
single  paper  the  treatment  of  such  combined  operations  in  general. 
If,  however,  the  use  of  a  reservoir  or  dam  is  restricted  to  irrigation 
alone,  the  paper  should  be  presented  under  the  head  of  "Irriga- 
tion," (C.).  The  unused  water  powers  of  North  and  South  America 
constitute  one  of  the  most  valuable  assets  of  Pan-American  countries. 
In  many  cases  the  development  of  the  hydroelectric  power  is  re- 
stricted by  provisions  of  general  legislation;  and  consequently  such 
legislation  is  of  vital  interest  to  all  Pan- American  countries.  Com- 
pilations of  water  power  construction  laws  of  any  single  country 
will  therefore  be  most  valuable  to  other  Pan-American  countries; 
and  so  far  as  such  legislation  has  been  compiled  and  digested,  a  brief 
statement  or  summary  of  the  same  will  constitute  a  valuable  paper 
for  the  Congress. 

C.  Irrigation  Systems  in  Pan- American  Countries  in  the  course  of 
construction  and  under  consideration. 

(NOTE. — The  above  question  was  taken  up  originally  by  the  First 
Congress,  and  was  by  it  specially  referred  to  the  Second  Congress 
now  in  progress.) 


Under  this  head  the  papers  should  include,  where  practicable, 
illustrations  of  works,  with  details,  materials  of  construction, 
cross  sections  of  canals,  plans  of  dams,  reservoirs,  gates,  locks 
for  navigations,  if  any;  spillways  (waste  weirs),  methods  of  meas- 
urements of  water,  layout  of  systems  of  ditches,  and  the  drainage. 
When  there  are  hydroelectric  powers  either  in  connection  writh 
irrigation  and  navigation  canals  or  by  themselves,  the  layout  and 
construction  of  powerhouses,  turbines,  and  dynamos,  transformers, 
etc.,  should  be  given;  also  descriptions  of  transmission  lines,  with 
the  voltages  employed,  length  of  lines,  and  the  purposes  for  which 
the  current  is  used,  should  be  full}7  stated.  An  interesting  and  use- 
ful description  would  be  that  relating  to  the  systems  where  irriga- 
tion, navigation,  and  hydroelectric  powers  are  combined.  The  dis- 
cussion of  irrigation  features  of  irrigation  systems,  under  the  head 
of  C.  in  the  engineering  section,  should  be  limited  to  matters  of  con- 
struction and  operation,  since  the  other  features  of  the  subject  are 
to  be  treated  specially  under  the  section  on  "Conservation  of  Natural 
Resources,"  and  under  subsections  B.  and  B.  Ill  above. 

D.-E.  Sanitary  Engineering  Works,  and  Municipal  and  Rural 
Water  Supply,  and  their  Operations,  best  adapted  to  the  conditions 
existing  in  various  cities  and  towns  and  rural  districts. 

F.  Mechanical  Engineering. 

''  r.  Nomenclature. — Compilation  of  native  engineering  terms  and 
idioms,  with  their  Spanish,  Portuguese,  French,  and  English 
equivalents. 

(XoTE. — The  above  subject  was  brought  up  originally  at  the  First 
Congress,  and  was  referred  by  that  Congress  to  the  Second  Con- 
gress now  under  preparation.)  It  is  not  expected  that  any  complete 
compilation  of  the  engineering  terms  of  the  various  countries  can 
be  prepared  in  the  brief  period  now  remaining  before  the  meeting 
of  the  Second  Congress;  but  partial  compilations,  so  far  as  they 
are  available,  are  extremely  desirable.  The  subject  will  probably 
be  referred  by  the  Second  Congress  to  the  Third  Congress,  and  per- 
haps to  following  Congresses.  The  matter  is  one  in  which  even 
partial  work,  if  submitted  in  such  shape  as  to  allow  of  publication, 
will  be  exceedingly  valuable  to  all  countries  concerned. 

While  the  above  principal  questions  cover  those  which  are  con- 
sidered of  the  most  vital  present  interest  to  Pan-American  coun- 
tries, it  is  hoped  that  the  papers  will  not  be  restricted  entirely  to 
such  principal  questions.  Wherever  in  any  country  some  of  the 
subjects  above  named  have  proved  to  be  of  special  importance  to 
that  particular  country,  and  the  engineering  features  of  the  same 
have  been  developed  to  an  extent  to  attract  special  attention,  a 
special  paper  on  the  subject  will  be  gladly  received  by  the  Congress. 


SECTION  VI. 


International  Law,  Public  Law,  and  Jurisprudence. 
Dr.  SCOTT,  Chairman. 

I.  The  relation  of  international  law  to  national  law  in  American 
countries. 

II.  The  study  of  international  law  in  American  countries  and  the 
means  by  which  it  may  be  made  more  effective. 

III.  How  can  the  people  of  the  American  countries  best  be  im- 
pressed with  the  duties  and  responsibilities  of  the  State  in  inter- 
national law  ? 

IV.  Are  there  specific  American  problems  of  international  law? 

V.  The  attitude  of  American  countries  toward  international  arbi- 
tration and  the  peaceful  settlement  of  international  disputes. 

VI.  Should  international  law  be  codified  ?    And  if  so,  should  it  be 
done    through    governmental    agencies    or    by    private    scientific 
societies  ? 

VII.  Criminal  law  and  procedure,  with  special  reference  to  the 
scope  and  limits  of  jury  trials. 

VIII.  Judicial  organization,  with  special  reference  to  the  ap- 
pointment or  election  of  judges;  the  organization  and  functions  of 
the  minor  judiciary. 

IX.  The  relation  of  the  judiciary  and  the  legislature. 

X.  Election  systems  and  election  methods. 

XI.  Presidential  and  parliamentary  government  on  the  American 
Continent. 

I.  The  relation  of  international  law  to  national  law  in  Ameri- 
can countries. — Consideration  of  the  rules  of  conduct  applied  in  the 
relations  between  nations  to  determine  whether  they  are  regarded  in 
American  countries  merely  as  rules  of  positive  morality,  or  as  a  sys- 
tem of  international  law  in  the  sense  in  which  the  term  "law"  is 
used  to  define  the  rules  of  conduct  within  the  nation,  and  the  extent 
to  which  the  principles  of  international  law,  if  regarded  as  binding 
the  State  in  its  relations  with  nations,  are  regarded  as  binding  and 
actually  applied  by  it  in  the  administration  of  its  domestic  law. 

II.  The  study  of  international  law  in  American  countries  and  the 
means  by  which  it  may  be  made  more  effective. — Modern  intercourse 
between  States  and  their  citizens  and  subjects  is  so  important,  ex- 
tensive, and  diversified  that  the  conduct  of  international  affairs, 
upon  which  so  often  depends  the  peace  of  nations,  requires  a  training 
not  heretofore  adequately  afforded  by  the  usual  courses  in  educa- 

(32) 


33 

tional  institutions;  and  in  democracies,  where  the  people  control 
the  actions  of  the  government  and  choose  the  authorities  responsible 
for  its  international  conduct,  it  is  becoming  increasingly  essential 
that  the  principles  which  govern  that  conduct  become  more  generally 
known,  and  that  ample  facilities  be  provided  for  effectively  acquir- 
ing a  knowledge  of  them.  Under  this  heading  it  is  therefore  pro- 
posed to  consider  the  means  for  increasing  the  facilities  for  the  study 
of  international  law  and  for  making  its  teaching  more  effective. 

.V  conference  on  the  Teaching  of  International  Law  and  Related 
Subjects  was  held  in  the  city  of  Washington,  April  23-25,  1914, 
under  the  auspices  of  the  American  Society  of  International  Law. 
A  copy  of  the  proceedings  of  this  conference  is  enclosed,  showing 
the  views  of  leading  publicists  and  teachers  in  the  United  States 
as  to  the  means  which  may  be  taken  to  render  instruction  in  institu- 
tions of  learning  more  effective. 

III.  How  can  the  people  of  the  American  countries  best  be  im- 
pressed with  the  duties  and  responsibilities  of  the  State  in  interna- 
tional law? — Closely  allied  with  the  preceding  topic  is  the  problem 
of  impressing  upon  the  people,  responsible  in  democracies  for  the 
conduct  of  government,  with  a  deeper  realization  of  the  obligations 
and  duties  which  are  concomitants  of  the  possession  of  such  respon- 
sibility.   This  topic  is  intended  to  afford  opportunity  to  consider  the 
rt^eans  of  educating  the  people  and  creating  a  greater  interest  in 
the  international  responsibilities  of  the  State,  so  that  the  intelligent 
direction  of  foreign  intercourse  through  the  chosen  channels  may 
have  the  support  of  an  enlightened  constituency. 

IV.  Are  there  specific  American  problems  of  international  law? — 
This  topic,  stated  interrogatively,  is  not  intended  to  suggest  that 
there  is  a  special  international  law  for  the  new  world,  separate  and 
distinct  from  the  international  law  universally  applied,  but  to  dis- 
cover if  there  are  questions  arising  between  nations  in  America  not 
covered  either  adequately,  or  at  all,  by  the  system  of  international 
law  universally  applied,  and  if  so,  to  discuss  such  questions  and  de- 
velop the  principles  by  which  they  should  be  settled. 

V.  The  attitude  of  American  countries  toward  international  ar- 
bitration and  the  peaceful  settlement  of  international  disputes. — 
This  section  involves  consideration  of  the  broad  subject  of  the  peace- 
ful as  distinguished  from  the  forcible  settlement  of  international  dis- 
putes.   The  treatment  need  not  be  confined  to  an  historical  statement 
of  what  the  attitude  of  America  has  been  as  shown  by  actual  practice, 
but  may  include  a  discussion  of  the  views  of  publicists  and  proposals 
which  have  been  advanced  from  time  to  time  to  reduce  or  eliminate 
the  use  of  force  between  the  nations  of  America.     The  words  "peace- 


34 

ful  settlement"  include  not  only  the  use  of  arbitration,  but  also  of 
good  offices,  mediation,  commissions  of  inquiry,  international  judicial 
tribunals,  and  any  other  means  for  adjusting  international  con- 
troversies by  reason  rather  than  by  force. 

VI.  Should  international  law  be  codified?    And  if  so,  should  it  be 
done  through  governmental  agencies  or  by  private  scientific  socie- 
ties?— This  topic  brings  up  the  question  as  to  whether  an  attempt 
should  be  made  to  reduce  international  law  to  a  systematic  whole 
and  put  it  in  the  form  of  a  code,  or  regard  it  as  common  law  to  be 
crystallized  by  the  usages  and  practices  of  nations.    If  the  former 
method  is  advocated,  there  should  be  noted  the  divergence  of  opin- 
ion as  to  whether  international  law  should  be  codified  by  the  gov- 
ernments in  conference,  by  the  issuance  of  separate  governmental 
codifications,  or  through  the  work  of  scientific  societies,  and  the 
advantages  and  disadvantages  of  each  should  be  pointed  out. 

VII.  Criminal  laic  and  procedure,  with  special  reference  to  the 
scope  and  limits  of  jury  trials. — The  several  theories  for  the  punish- 
ment of  criminals,  namely  as  a  punishment  for  crime,  as  a  warning  to 
others,  or  both,  will  be  discussed,  and  the  effect  of  each  on  the  nature 
and  content  of  the  law  pointed  out.    The  topic  will  also  include  gen- 
eral observations  on  the  principal  differences  between  the  criminal 
procedure  of  States  following  the  civil  law,  and  those  following  the 
common  law,  with  especial  reference  to  the  proper  functions  of  the 
jury. 

VIII.  Judicial  -organization,  'wit/i  special  reference  to  the  appoint- 
ment or  election  of  judges;  the  organization  and  functions  of  the 
minor  judiciary. — In  addition  to  general  observations  on  the  judi- 
cial organization  of  the  different  States,  this  topic  will  include  a 
discussion  of  the  reasons  for  or  against  the  selection  of  judges,  and 
other  judicial  officials,  by  appointment  of  the  executive  authority  and 
by  election,  and  for  or  against  their  tenure  of  office  for  life,  and  for 
a  term  of  years. 

IX.  The  relation  of  the  judiciary  and  the  legislature. — The  par- 
ticular object  of  this  topic  is  to  provide  a  discussion,  in  the  light 
of  the  experience  and  practice  of  the  different  States,  concerning 
the  effect  upon  the  right  of  the  legislative  branch  to  enact  the  laws, 
of  the  check  which  the  judiciary  holds  over  legislative  acts  by 
virtue  of  the  power  of  interpreting  and  construing  them  according 
to  the  Constitution. 

X.  Election  systems  and  election  methods. — A  full  and  free  ex- 
change is  expected  under  this  topic  of  views  formed  as  the  result 
of  the  liberal  experience  of  the  American  peoples  with  the  election 
system,  upon  its  operation  generally,  direct  and  indirect  elections, 


35 

and  combinations  of  the  elective  and  appointive  systems  in  the  selec- 
tion of  principal  and  subordinate  officials. 

XI.  Presidential  and  parliamentary  government  on  the  American 
Continent. — This  topic  is  not  meant  to  open  up  a  general  discussion 
of  the  functions  of  the  executive  and  legislative  branches  commonly 
adopted  by  the  American  peoples  in  their  forms  of  government,  but 
to  consider  the  means  for  remedying  what  is  sometimes  regarded  as 
a  defect  in  the  system,  namely,  a  lack  of  cooperation  between  these 
two  branches.  This  cooperation  is  usually  provided  for  by  giving 
the  legislature  a  voice  in  the  appointment  of  officials  and  vesting 
the  veto  power  in  the  executive  as  a  check  on  legislation.  Specifi- 
cally there  may  be  considered  the  suggestion  that  more  intimate 
cooperation  would  be  obtained  by  providing  that  the  executive's 
principal  official  advisers,  namely,  the  members  of  his  cabinet,  be 
allowed  and  required  to  appear  before  the  legislative  branch  to  ex- 
plain and  justify  their  policies,  and  thus  make  them  more  directly 
responsible  to  the  people  through  their  chosen  representatives. 

PAX-AMERICAN  INSTITUTE  or  INTERNATIONAL  LAAV. 

It  is  hoped  that  the  American  Institute  of  International  Law, 
which  is  composed  of  representatives  of  the  different  national 
societies  in  the  Pan-American  countries,  may  be  formally  inaugu- 
rated and  hold  its  first  session  in  Washington,  under  the  auspices 
of  the  Second  Pan-American  Scientific  Congress. 

National  societies  have  been  formed  in  Brazil,  Chile,  Mexico, 
Nicaragua,  Peru,  and  Uruguay,  and  are  in  process  of  formation  in 
others.  It  is  believed  that  in  this  way  international  law,  consisting 
not  merely  of  the  rights  but  of  the  duties  of  nations,  will  be  brought 
home  to  the  peoples  of  the  different  countries  through  the  national 
societies  composed  of  persons  interested  in  the  subject,  versed  in  its 
principles,  and  competent  to  expound  and  to  popularize  them. 

The  Institute,  composed  of  five  publicists  from  each  American 
country,  recommended  by  the  national  societies,  will,  it  is  hoped, 
do  for  international  law  in  the  Americas  what  the  older  Institute  of 
International  Law  has  done  for  international  law  in  general,  and 
the  scientific  cooperation  of  American  publicists  will  not  only  advance 
the  cause  of  international  law  and  base  the  actions  of  governments 
upon  its  principles,  but  will  strengthen  the  bonds  of  sympathy 
which  exist  between  and  among  the  American  Republics. 

The  formation  of  these  societies  in  all  of  the  countries  of  Central 
and  South  America  will  materially  aid  in  this  educational  process, 
and  any  encouragement  or  cooperation  which  the  Governments  of 
the  American  Republics  can  extend  will  give  the  movement  an  official 
impetus. 


SECTION  VII. 


Mining,  Metallurgy,  Economic  Geology,  and  Applied  Chemistry. 

Mr.  JENNINGS,  Chairman. 
A.  MINING  AND  METALLURGY. 

I.  Mining  laws  and  regulations,  and  accident  statistics. 

(a)  Codification  of  mining  laws,  with  the  purpose  of  assembling : 

(1)  the  mining  statutes  of  each  country  with  amendments  to  date; 

(2)  State  laws  and  regulations;  and  (3)  the  legal  interpretation  of 
these  laws,  including  both  legal  definitions  of  mining  terms  and  the 
court  decisions  defining  the  scope  of  applicability  of  particular 
statutes. 

(b)  Methods  of  determining  fatality  rates  in  mining  and  other 
mineral   industries,   with    reference   to    the    adoption    of   uniform 
methods. 

(c)  Methods  of  classifying  mining  and  other  industrial  accidents 
with  a  view  to  the  adoption  of  uniform  methods. 

II.  Methods  of  mining  and  treating  minerals,  with  reference  to 
increased  economy  and  efficiency  and  greater  safety. 

(a)  Metal  mining  (surface  and  underground)  — 

1.  Platinum,  gold,  silver,  and  other  noble  metal  ores. 

2.  Copper,  tin,  lead,  and  zinc  ores. 

3.  Iron  and  manganese  ores. 

4.  Ores  of  vanadium  and  other  rare  metals. 

(b)  Non-metal   mining    (surface   and   underground),   including 
oil,  gas,  and  salt  wells. 

1.  Fuels. 

a.  Coal,  lignite,  peat. 

b.  Oil  and  natural  gas. 

2.  Asphalt  and  other  hydrocarbons  not  used  as  fuel. 

3.  Sodium  chloride,  sodium  nitrate,  phosphates. 

4.  Building  stones,  clays,  cement  materials. 

5.  Precious  stones. 

6.  Other  minerals. 

III.  Mining  costs. 

(a)  Costs  of  acquiring  title  to  mineral  lands  or  holding  mineral 
leases;  royalties;  taxes. 

(£>)  Costs  of  mining,  underground  and  surface,  with  reference  to 
labor  supply  and  greater  use  of  water  power,  steam,  electricity,  and 
labor-saving  machinery. 

(36) 


37 

(c)  Costs  of  ore  dressing,  with  reference  to  labor  supply  and  in- 
creased use  of  labor-saving  devices. 

(d)  Transportation  costs,  with  reference  to  present  methods  of 
transportation  and  the  lowering  of  cost  to  be  effected  by  better 
roads,  and  greater  use  of  aerial  conveyors  and  steam  or  electric  rail- 
roads. 

IV.  Statistics  of  cost  data  on  the  use  of  electricity  in  mining,  in- 
cluding also  discussion  on  the  development  of  water  power  especially 
for  this  purpose. 

V.  Hydro-metallurgy. 

(a)  Treatment  of  the  precious  metals,  including  especially  recent 
developments  in  the  cyanide  process. 

(b)  Extraction  of  copper  from  its  ores.     (So  great  developments 
have  recently  taken  place  in  this  phase  of  metallurgy  that  we  may 
say  that  the  whole  copper  industry  seems  to  be  on  the  verge  of  a 
great  revolution.) 

(c)  Extraction  of  zinc  and  other  metals  by  wet  methods. 

(d)  The  cost  of  hydro-metallurgical  processes  as  compared  with 
smelting  processes. 

VI.  Electro-metallurgy. 

(a)  The  electrolysis  of  copper,  lead,  nickel,  and  other  metals. 
(&)   Electric  smelting  of  ores  of  iron,  copper,  nickel,  and  zinc. 

(c)  Electric  refining  of  steel. 

(d)  The  use  of  electric  melting  in  steel,  iron,  and  brass  foundries. 

(e)  The  cost  of  electric  processes  as  compared  with  fuel  processes 
under  conditions  of  costly  fuel. 

VII.  Fuels. 

(a)  The  preparation  of  pulverized  solid  fuels  of  good  grade  from 
inferior  and  dirty  coal,  lignite,  etc. 

( b )  The  use  of  pulverized  solid  fuel  in  reverberatory  furnaces  for 
melting,  smelting,  annealing,  etc.,  including  its  use  in  the  copper, 
iron,  steel,  and  zinc  industries. 

(c)  The  use  of  oil  in  reverberatory  furnaces,  with  and  without 
preheated  air,  for  melting,  smelting,  annealing,  etc.,  including  its  use 
in  the  iron,  steel,  copper,  and  zinc  industries. 

(d)  The  use  of  oil  and  pulverized  solid  fuel  in  special  types  of 
furnace. 

(e)  The  cost  of  using  oil  and  pulverized  fuels  as  compared  with 
coal  and  manufactured  gas. 


The  section  on  Mining  and  Metallurgy  will  consider  mining  prob- 
lems of  the  most  direct  importance  to  the  development  of  the  mineral 
wealth  of  a  country,  and  to  the  promotion  of  commerce  between  the 


38 

American  Republics.     Consequently,  the  topics  discussed  should  be 
practical  and  of  wide  and  preferably  international  interest. 

Its  general  purposes  sought  are:  (1)  the  assembling  of  laws  gov- 
erning titles  to  mineral  lands  or  mineral  rights,  or  specifically  apply- 
ing to  the  operation  of  mines,  quarries,  oil  wells,  and  plants  for 
treating  minerals;  (2)  the  discussion  of  methods  of  mining  and 
treating  ores  and  minerals  of  possible  commercial  importance,  with 
a  view  to  the  devising  of  methods  of  greater  economy  and  efficiency 
or  increased  safety — chemical  processes  to  be  considered  by  the 
conference  on  applied  chemistry  or  at  joint  sessions;  (3)  show- 
ing the  items  of  cost,  including  mining,  treatment  and  trans- 
portation, that  determine  the  price  at  which  a  raw  mineral  or 
a  mineral  product  can  be  profitably  sold  at  a  shipping  port  or  point 
of  export,  and  the  possible  means  by  which  costs  of  production  can 
be  lessened  and  the  development  of  mineral  resources  thereby  in- 
creased; (4)  the  development  of  increased  efficiency  in  the  purchase 
of  minerals  and  mineral  products,  through  the  use  of  uniform  tests 
and  specifications,  and  the  promotion  of  economy  and  efficiency  in 
the  utilization  of  mineral  products  through  the  use  of  improved 
methods  and  apparatus,  it  being  recognized  that  this  purpose  will 
also  be  within  the  province  of  the  conferences  on  applied  chemistry 
and  of  mechanical  engineering. 

B.  ECONOMIC  GEOLOGY  AND  MINERAL  RESOURCES  OF  THE  REPUBLICS. 

Reports  and  papers  descriptive  of  the  important  mineral  de- 
posits, both  developed  and  undeveloped,  in  the  different  countries. 

Contributions  on  Economic  Geology  and  Mineral  Resources  should 
be  regional  rather  than  local  in  interest;  should  describe  and  map 
the  distribution  area,  and  mode  of  occurrence  (economic  geology) 
of  the  particular  kinds  of  deposits,  such  as  iron,  coal,  petroleum, 
copper,  potash  and  nitre,  gold,  silver,  tin  vanadium,  sulphur,  lead, 
etc.;  their  qualities,  characters,  and  adaptations;  the  quantities  in 
each  area,  so  far  as  they  may  at  present  be  estimated;  the  state  of 
development  in  and  the  accessibility  of  each  area  and  the  present 
capacity  of  production  of  each  kind  of  mineral  resources  that  may  be 
contributed  to  international  trade. 

It  will  be  opportune  that  each  participating  country  shall 
present  for  the  information  of  its  sister  republics  and  of  the  world 
an  exposition,  through  reports  and  maps,  of  the  mineral  resources 
and  products  which  it  has  to  offer  the  world  in  trade,  and  to  invite 
attention  to  its  important  undeveloped  mineral  deposits,  the  ex- 
ploitation of  which  would  increase  the  prosperity  of  the  country, 
while  contributing  to  Pan- American  commerce.  It  is  designed  that 


39 

the  section  of  economic  geology  and  mineral  resources  shall  have 
for  its  principal  aim  the  presentation  of  reports,  with  maps,  covering 
the  important  mineral  resources,  both  developed  and  undeveloped, 
of  each  republic.  It  is  hoped  that  these  reports,  when  combined,  will 
constitute  in  effect  a  census  of  the  important  mineral  resources  that 
have  been  discovered  in  each  country. 

C.  APPLIED  CHEMISTRY. 

Applied  Chemistry  has  for  its  purpose  the  isolation  and  purifica- 
tion of  chemical  substances  found  in  nature  or  else  the  rearrange- 
ment of  such  substances  through  their  interactions  so  as  to  produce 
new  chemical  substances  of  benefit  to  man.  In  dealing  with  this 
subject  broadly  it  is  essential  to  know  the  sources  of  supply  of  raw 
material  and  the  extent  of  each.  The  kind  and  extent  of  the 
energy  to  be  used  in  effecting  these  chemical  changes.  And  how 
largely  these  resources  are  availed  of  in  the  several  countries  send- 
ing delegates  to  this  Congress.  Therefore  it  is  suggested  that 
topics  in  Applied  Chemistry  be  treated  of  under  the  following 
headings : 

I.  General  mineral  resources  of  the  country. — Accounts  of  the  ex- 
tent, accessibility,  and  availability  of  ores  of  iron,  copper,  lead,  zinc, 
tin,  nickel,  cobalt,  vanadium,  phosphorus,  gold,  silver,  platinum, 
sulphur,  petroleum,  asphalt,  nitre,  and  other  elements  and  com- 
pounds useful  in  manufacture  and  commerce. 

II.  Extent,  availability,  and  accessibility  of  the  faunal  and  floral 
resources. — Data  as  to  the  kind  and  amounts  of  animal  and  vegetable 
fats  and  oils,  skins,  sugars,  natural  dyestuffs  and  tanning  materials, 
perfumes,   alkaloidal-bearing   plants   and   fungi    (especially   those 
affording  caffeine  and  theine),  rubber,  camphor,  and  other  terpene 
producers,  gums  for  lacquers  and  varnishes,  and  the  residues  avail- 
able as  fertilizers. 

III.  Extent  and  availability  of  sources  of  energy. — Especial  atten- 
tion should  be  given  to  the  opportunities  for  the  development  of 
hydro-electric  power,  and  the  extent  to  which  it  is  now  developed, 
since  this  is  of  especial  usefulness  in  the  electro-chemical  industries 
which  have  but  recently  entered  upon  a  career  of  marked,  but  as  yet, 
unmeasured  usefulness. 

IV.  Extent  to  which  the  chemical  industries  are  developed. — Espe- 
cial attention  should  be  given  to  iron  and  steel,  gas  (in  its  many 
forms  of  production),  fertilizers,  soap,  salt,  petroleum  refining,  coke, 
gas,  explosives,  dyestuffs  and  tanning,  leather,  and  other  industries, 
including  those  for  the  manufacture  of  the  acids,  bases,  and  salts^ 
usually  styled  chemicals. 


40 

The  participating  governments  are  urged  to  see  that  reports  and 
contributions  on  the  mineral  deposits  of  their  countries  are  pre- 
pared, in  accordance  so  far  as  possible  with  the  outline  above,  and 
submitted  to  the  Congress  .for  publication.  It  is  suggested  that 
specialists  in  the  different  industries  be  selected  for  this  work; 
also,  that  private  citizens,  engineers,  representatives  of  indus- 
trial organizations,  and  scientific  institutions  volunteer  to  pre- 
pare reports  on  various  kinds  of  mineral  resources.  It  is  further 
suggested  that  the  several  governments  cooperate  with  such  volun- 
teers, as  well  as  with  official  contributors,  extending  such  govern- 
mental aid  as  may  be  possible  to  the  writers,  in  order  that  the  reports 
may  be  as  complete  and  as  valuable  as  possible.  The  highest  merit 
will  probably  be  found  in  separate  papers  on  particular  kinds  of 
deposits  submitted  by  specialist  authors.  Maps,  diagrams,  and 
tables  should  be  u'sed  fully  to  supplement  descriptions  and  statistics. 

As  to  the  papers  on  applied  chemistry,  representatives  from  the 
United  States  will,  in  the  main,  offer  papers  dealing  with  the  in- 
dustries of  this  country  which  use  raw  materials  from  the  other 
countries  represented  in  the  Congress. 

In  this  way  each  country  will  obtain  at  first  hand  information 
regarding  the  resources  of  other  countries,  and  the  possibilities  of 
instituting  or  developing  at  home  industries  of  like  nature,  or  those 
utilizing  raw  materials  which  it  may  not  hope  to  produce. 

Questions  of  water  supply  and  of  disposal  and  utilization  of 
sewage  and  factory  waste,  so  far  as  these  are  chemical  problems, 
will  be  included  in  the  chemistry  program ;  also  that  of  adopting 
standard  methods  of  analysis  for  commercial  transactions  in  sub- 
stances amenable  to  chemical  test. 


SECTION  VIII. 

Public  Health  and  Medical  Science. 
Gen.  GORGAS,  Chairman. 

A.  PUBLIC  HEALTH. 

I.  Infectious  Diseases;  the  Bearing  of  their  Modes  of  Infec- 
tion on  Methods  of  Control. 

II.  Nutritional  Diseases;  their  Public  Health  Bearing,  with 
Special  Reference  to  Beriberi  and  Pellagra. 

B.  VITAL  STATISTICS. 

I.  Sickness  (Morbidity)  Reports. 
II.  Birth  and  Death  Registration. 

A.  Public  Health. 

I.  Infectious  Diseases;  the  Bearing  of  their  Modes  of  Infection 
on  Methods  of  Control. — Present  views  regarding  transmission  of 
diseases  of  vegetables  and  animal  origin.     Relative  importance  of 
the  two  classes  of  diseases  in  the  several  American  countries.     Pres- 
ent status  of  disease  prevention  in  these  countries.     Factors  influenc- 
ing the  exercise  of  full  measures  of  control. 

II.  Nutritional   Diseases;    their   Public   Health   Bearing,   with 
Special  Reference  to  Beriberi  and  Pellagra. — General  consideration 
regarding  the  relation  of  particular  constituents  of  foods  and  un- 
balanced diets  to  health  and  disease.     The  peculiarities  of  diets  in 
the  several  American  countries.     The  occurrence  of  cases  of  nutri- 
tional diseases  in  these  countries.     Prophylactic  measures  which  our 
present  knowledge  indicates.     Results  obtained  in  various  countries 
through  the  application  of  these  measures. 

B.  Vital  Statistics. 

I.  Sickness   (Morbidity)   Reports. — The  relation  of  sickness  re- 
ports to  health  administration.     The  provisions  for  their  collection 
in  the  several  American  countries.     Methods  and  extent  of  collec- 
tion.    Responsibility  for  and  means  of  international  notification  of 
communicable  disease. 

II.  Birth  and  Death  Registration. — Difficulties  of  securing  regis- 
tration peculiar  to  the  several  American  countries.     The  complete- 
ness and  accuracy  of  compiled  statistics.     The  nature  of  the  changes 
in  the  birth  and  death  rates  during  recent  years,  and  the  public 
health  significance  of  these  changes. 

C.  SOCIOLOGICAL  MEDICINE. 

I.  Relation  of  individual  to  community — social  utility — duties  of 
individual  to  community  and  community  to  individual- 
health  matters  of  public  interest. 

(41) 


42 

II.  Ways  and  means  of  bringing  matters  of  public  health  to  social 

usefulness. 

(a)  Sources  of  information — statistics,  health  reports,  munici- 
pal and  state  surveys. 

(6)  Preparation  of  legislative  measures — committee  hearings, 
etc. 

(c)  Publicity  avenues  and  methods — use  of  existing  organiza- 
tions, new  organizations,  press,  etc. 

III.  Public  Health  Measures. 

(a)  Industrial  Hygiene  and  Sanitation. 

1.  Hygiene  of  dangerous  trades. 

2.  Child  labor. 

3.  Emplo}^ment  of  married  and  pregnant  women. 

4.  Factory  sanitation. 

5.  Housing. 

6.  Public  school  inspection. 

(b)  Venereal  prophylaxis. 

(c)  Alcohol  and  drug  prophylaxis. 

(d)  Tuberculosis. 

(e)  Mental  Hygiene. 

1.  Insane. 

2.  Defectives. 

3.  Juvenile  delinquency. 

4.  Criminology. 

5.  Pauperism. 
G.  Education. 

D.  SANITATION. 

I.  Town  and  city  planning. 

II.  Buildings  for  human  occupancy. 

III.  Travel  and  transportation. 

IV.  Food  supply. 

V.  Water  supply. 

VI.  Disposal  of  refuse. 

VII.  Disposal  of  the  dead. 

VIII.  Military  and  naval  sanitation. 

Each  of  the  subjects  named  in  these  several  subheadings  may  be 
discussed  from  the  standpoint  of  the  sciences  and  arts  directly  in- 
volved, or  from  the  climatic,  the  social,  the  economic,  the  historical 
or  the  legislative  standpoint,  or  from  any  combination  of  these  stand- 
points, in  so  far  as  they  ~bear  on  public  health. 

I.  Town  and  city  planning. — The  recent  increase  in  the  urban  pop- 
ulation, and  the  knowledge  we  now  have  of  conditions  liable  to  sap 


43 

the  vitality  of  the  city  dweller  and  to  cause  disease  and  premature 
death,  have  directed  attention  to  the  possibilities  for  human  better- 
ment that  lie  in  the  intelligent  selection  of  sites  for  towns  and  cities, 
and  in  the  planning  of  towns  and  cities,  with  a  view  to  the  preserva- 
tion and  promotion  of  health.  The  possibilities  that  lie  in  the  re- 
modeling of  slum  areas  in  existing  towns  and  cities  have  been 
made  the  subject  of  much  study  and  may  be  considered  with 
a  view  to  their  more  extensive  utilization.  Water  supply,  sewerage, 
street  grades  and  surfacing,  lighting,  public  baths,  parks,  and  play- 
grounds and  other  community  recreation  facilities,  may  all  be  con- 
sidered in  their  relation  to  town  and  city  planning. 

II.  Buildings  for   human  occupancy. — Civilized  man   spends   a 
large  part  of  his  life  in  buildings — in  the  home,  the  school,  the  work- 
shop, the  office,  the  barracks,  the  hospital,  the  asylum,  the  jail,  the 
church,  and  the  theater,  etc.     These  structures  exert  a  powerful  in- 
fluence on  the  life  of  the  individual  and  of  the  race.     The  selection 
and  preparation  of  the  site ;  the  Avaterproofing  of  foundations,  walls, 
and  roof ;  lighting,  natural  and  artificial ;  drainage  and  facilities  for 
cleaning  and  waste  disposal ;  heating — all  these  are  to  be  considered 
in  their  relation  to  the  use  to  which  the  building  is  to  be  put. 

III.  Travel  and  transportation. — Travel  and  the  transportation  of 
merchandise  form  important  factors  in  modern  life.     Some  of  their 
relations  to  public  health  are  well  recognized,  as  with  respect  to  the 
dissemination  of  plague,  Asiatic  cholera,  and  other  communicable 
diseases.     There  are,  however,  problems  in  this  field  as  yet  unsolved, 
which  may  well  occupy  the  attention  of  the  Congress.     The}7  cover 
the  relation  of  the  various  conditions  of  travel  to  the  health  of  the 
traveler,  of  the  operatives  of  the  agencies  of  travel  and  transporta- 
tion, and  of  the  communities  through  which  travel  and  transporta- 
tion passes  and  in  which  it  terminates.     Among  them  may  be  men- 
tioned the  water  supply  of  railway  trains  and  boats,  the  disposal  of 
human  excreta,  and  the  ventilation  of  railway  cars  of  various  types. 

IV.  Food  supply. — The  relations  between  the  propagation,  manu- 
facture, distribution,  storage,  and  sale  of  food  on  the  one  hand,  and 
public  health  on  the  other,  should  have  the  earnest  attention  of  the 
Congress.     The  connection  between  wholesomeness  and  the  changes 
resulting  from  bacterial  processes,  the  effect  of  preservatives  upon 
health,  the  use  of  coloring  matter,  and  the  choice  of  containers  for 
preserved  foods  should  be  considered.     The  location,  planning,  con- 
struction, and  operation  of  abattoirs,  cold-storage  warehouses,  can- 
ning factories,  creameries,  and  cheese  factories  are  subjects  within 
the  scope  of  the  section. 


44 

V.  Water  supply. — Under  this  heading  will  be  considered  the  pro- 
tection of  the  water  supply  used  for  human  consumption,  its  con- 
servation, purification,  and  distribution. 

VI.  Disposal  of  refuse. — Under  this  topic  there  is  a  wide  range  of 
matters  to  be  considered,  viz,  (1)  sewage  disposal,  (2)  garbage,  (3) 
ashes,  (4)  night  soil,  (5)  stable  manure,  (6)  trade  wastes,  (7)  mis- 
cellaneous refuse  of  the  household,  and  (8)  street  cleanings.     The 
collection,  transportation,  and  ultimate  disposal  of  these  classes  of 
refuse  will  be  considered,  and  incidentally  the  purity  of  rivers  and 
other  bodies  of  water. 

VII.  Disposal  <of  the  dead. — The  historical  study  of  this  subject, 
especially  in  its  relation  to  the  Western  Hemisphere,  affords  a  fertile 
and  interesting  field.     In  a  more  practical  way,  the  locating  and 
planning  of  cemeteries  and  the  construction  and  operation  of  crema- 
tories and  morgues  may  engage  the  attention  of  the  Congress. 

VIII.  Military  and  naval  sanitation. — While  the  maintenance  and 
operations  of  military  forces  involve  the  same  circumstances  as  arise 
in  civil  life — locating  and  planning  barracks  and  camps,  transporta- 
tion, water  supply,  food  supply,  refuse  disposal,  and  disposal  of  the 
dead — yet  all  these  have  to  be  adapted  to  conditions  different  from 
those  prevailing  in  civil  life.     The  Congress  will  expect  to  learn  the 
results  of  the  experiences,  observations,  and  studies  of  those  who 
have  been  engaged  in  sanitation  from  military  and  naval  stand- 
points. 

E.  CONFERENCE  ON  LABORATORY. 

I.  Symposium  on  Anaphylaxis. 

(a)  The  Antibodies  in  Anaphylaxis. 

(Z>)   Relation  of  Anaphylaxis  to  Immunity. 

(c)  Relation  of  Experimental  Anaphylaxis  to  Serum  Sickness. 

(d)  The  Incubation  Period  of  Certain  Diseases  as  Related  to 

Anaphylaxis. 

(e)  Anaphylaxis  in  Tuberculosis. 

II.  Symposium  on  Life  Histories  of  Protozoa. 

(a)  The  General  Question  of  Possible  Continued  Vitality  in 

the  Same  Environment. 
(6)   The  Effects  of  Change  of  Host  on  Vitality. 

(c)  The  Possibility  of  Parthenogenesis  or  Asexual  Restoration 

of  Vital  Activities. 

(d)  Conjugation  and  Fertilization. 

(e)  The  General  Question  of  Species. 


SECTION  IX, 


Transportation,  Commerce,  Finance,  and  Taxation. 

Dr.  ROWE,  Chairman. 
I.  TRANSPORTATION. 

(a)  Ocean  Transportation. 

(b)  International  Railways. 

(c)  Internal  Railway  Development. 

(d)  Harbors,  Terminals  and  Inland  Waterways. 

(e)  Public  Highways. 
II.  COMMERCE. 

(a)  Resources  and  Other  Local  Conditions. 

(b)  Development  of  Domestic  Industries. 

(c)  Foreign  Trade  Among  American  Countries. 

(d)  Measurement  of  Foreign  Commerce. 
III.  FINANCE  AND  TAXATION. 

(a)  Taxation. 

(b)  Investments  of  Foreign  Capital. 

(c)  Credit  and  Banking. 

(d)  A  Common  Monetary  Standard. 

I.  TRANSPORTATION. 

(a)  Ocean   Transportation. — The  American   countries   are  now 
mainly  dependent  upon  European  countries  for  their  ocean  trans- 
portation.    European  owned  ships  practically  dominate  the  seas. 
Adequate  ocean  carrying  facilities  are  indispensable  to  the  main- 
tenance  and   extension   of   foreign   commerce.     The  present  war 
has  vividly  brought  to  mind  the  need  for  better  American  trans- 
portation   facilities.      This   raises   the    questions   to   what   extent 
American  countries  are  developing  their  merchant  marine,  what 
have  been  the  obstacles  to  such  development  and  how  such  develop- 
ment can  be  fostered ;  to  what  extent  and  by  what  methods  govern- 
ments have  owned  and  operated  steamship  lines,  and  with  what 
results. 

(b)  International  Railways. — While  there  are  railway  connec- 
tions between  some  American  countries,  no  comprehensive  plan  has 
been  carried  out  for  bringing  the  American  countries  into  closer  com- 
munication by  the  extension  of  railway  facilities,  the  establishment 
of  uniform  methods  of  transportation,  rates,  etc.    The  feasibility  of 

(45) 


46 

the  adoption  of  such  plans  and  the  economic  results  constitute  im- 
portant subjects  for  discussion. 

(c)  Internal  Railivay  Development. — The  construction  of  rail- 
ways involves  such  heavy  expenditures  that  in  new  countries  for- 
eign capital  is  almost  indispensable  for  their  development.     It  is 
of  interest  to  know  what  inducements  are  offered  by  the  various 
governments   for   such   investments,   what   are  the   most   effective 
plans  of  granting  railway  franchises  and  controlling  railway  oper- 
ations, and  to  what  extent  American  Governments  have  owned  and 
operated  railroads  and  with  what  results. 

(d)  Harbors,  Terminals  and  Inland  Waterways. — Important  fac- 
tors in  the  development  of  a  country's  resources  are  the  means  of 
inland  water  transportation,  the  harbor  facilities  and  the  connec- 
tion between  these  and  the  railroads.    The  systematic  planning  of 
these  facilities,  the  methods  of  securing  funds  for  their  construc- 
tion (national  and  local  division  of  expense),  the  charges  to  be  im- 
posed in  the  traffic  and  the  supervision  of  rate  charges,  are  ques- 
tions to  be  studied  in  connection  with  the  commerce  of  a  country. 

(e)  Public  Highways. — In  new  countries  where  railways  have 
not  been  extensively  developed  the  condition  of  the  public  highways 
practically  determines  the  development  of  the  national  resources. 
The  nature  and  extent  of  public  highways,  their  adaptability  to  the 
traffic,  especially  in  view  of  the  increased  use  of  motor  vehicles,  and 
the  policy  of  the  governments  with  regard  to  providing  funds  for 
their  construction  and  maintenance  are  subjects  on  which  a  com- 
parison of  the  experiences  of  different  countries  would  be  of  value. 

II.  COMMERCE. 

(a)  Resources  and  Other  Local  Conditions. — The  people  of  the 
United  States  have  a  very  limited  knowledge  of  the  Central  and 
South  American  countries,  and  the  latter  of  the  United  States.    Dis- 
cussions by  representatives  of  the  various  countries  concerning  the 
resources,  population,  systems  of  government,  industrial  and  com- 
mercial advantages,  social  customs,  cost  of  living,  wages,  etc.,  of 
each  country  would  be  of  mutual  advantage. 

(b)  Development  of  Domestic  Industries. — The  United  States  is 
now  evolving  from  an  agricultural  to  a  manufacturing  country. 
Central  and  South  America  export  most  of  their  raw  products  and 
import  nearly  all  of  their  manufactures.     Many  raw  products  of 
these  countries  could  be  more  economically  manufactured  in  the 
countries  of  their  origin  if  sufficient  technical  knowledge,  money, 
and  labor  were  available.     In  the  production  of  raw  materials, 


47 

primitive  methods  are  sometimes  used  because  industries  are  con- 
ducted on  a  small  scale.  This  raises  the  question  as  to  what  methods 
each  country  is  employing  to  encourage  manufactures  near  the 
sources  of  the  raw  materials,  such  as  making  concessions  of  land, 
granting  exemptions  from  taxation,  levying  protective  duties  on 
imports,  encouraging  industrial  combinations,  cartels,  etc.,  and  what 
has  been  the  experience  of  each  country  in  this  field  of  endeavor. 

(c)  Foreign    Trade    Among    American    Countries. — South    and 
Central  America   are  mainly   food   and   raw   material  producing 
countries.     They  must  find  markets  abroad  for  their  products  and 
must  secure  what  they  need  of  manufactured  products  by  an  inter- 
national exchange  of  commodities.     Most  of  the  trade  of  Central 
and  South  America  is  with  Europe,  because  Europe  offers  better 
transportation,  credit,  and  banking  facilities  and  the  business  men 
supply  the  quality  or  kind  of  goods  demanded,  and  foster  cordial 
personal  relations.    Attention  should  be  directed  to  the  possibilities 
and  the  economic  advantages  of  securing  better  trade  relations  be- 
tween the  United  States  and  the  other  American  Republics. 

(d)  The  Measurement  of  Foreign  Commerce. — In  order  to  know 
the  extent  of  the  foreign  trade  of  a  country  both  for  commercial 
purposes  and  for  purposes  of  taxation,  statistics  are  collected  of  the 
quantity  and  value  of  the  imports  and  exports.     There  is  no  uni- 
formity of  method  either  in  the  recording  of  such  trade  movements 
or  in  the  classification  of  the  commodities.     Furthermore,  there  is 
no  uniformity  of  requirements  with  regard  to  consular  invoices,  the 
furnishing  of  manifests  and  entries,  etc.    The  desirability  and  the 
feasibility  of  steps  to  secure  such  uniformity  are  proper  subjects  for 
discussion. 

III.  FINANCE  AND  TAXATION. 

(a)  Taxation. — While  all  American  Republics  have  the  same 
form  of  government,  they  are  newT  countries  whose  resources  need 
to  be  developed.  While  capital  is  needed  for  such  development  and 
valuable  concessions  are  sometimes  made  to  foreign  corporations, 
the  state  is  entitled  to  a  fair  measure  of  the  receipts  from  the  prod- 
ucts of  such  exploitation.  The  form  of  taxation  must  be  so  arranged 
that  the  development  of  the  resources  of  a  country  is  stimulated 
rather  than  retarded.  It  is  interesting  to  know  what  has  been  the 
experience  of  each  country  with  regard  to  its  fiscal  system.  The 
questions  which  suggest  themselves  are:  To  what  extent  and  with 
what  effect  upon  the  domestic  industries,  does  the  government  de- 
rive its  revenue  from  imports  and  exports;  income,  inheritance, 


48 

real  and  personal  property  and  the  various  forms  of  business  taxes  ? 
Are  discriminations  made  against  aliens?  What  special  forms  of 
taxation  are  best  adapted  to  the  needs  of  the  American  Republics? 
To  what  extent  can  reciprocal  tariff  concessions  bring  about  closer 
trade  relations  between  the  American  Republics  ? 

(b)  Investment  of  Foreign  Capital. — Practically  all  American 
countries  owe  their  development  more  or  less  to  the  use  of  foreign 
capital,  either  in  the  form  of  loans  or  by  direct  investment  in 
American  enterprises.     There  should  be  a  discussion  of  the  ad- 
vantages and  disadvantages  to  a  new  country  of  such  a  plan  of 
development,  the  forms  of  security  required  for  such  loans,  the 
conditions  of  investment  (such  as  requiring  the  borrower  to  pur- 
chase his  materials  and  supplies  from  the  lender  or  his  compa- 
triots) and  the  policy  of  giving  liens  on  the  customs  receipts  when 
public  loans  are  made. 

(c)  Credit  and  Banking. — One  of  the  principal  reasons  why 
European  exporters  have  been  able  to  excel  in  the  development  of 
their  foreign  trade  with  Central  and  South  America  has  been  their 
liberality  in  the  extension  of  credits  to  their  customers.    Further- 
more, the  Europeans  have  organized  systems  of  banks  in  these  coun- 
tries to  provide  the  needs  of  the  credit  systems  established.     The 
South  American  prefers  to  buy  where  he  can  obtain  the  most  favor- 
able facilities  for  payment.     A  debatable  question  is  how  far  the 
American  manufacturer  can  go  to  meet  the  legitimate  demands  for 
credit  on  the  part  of  foreign  purchasers,  what  banking  arrange- 
ments are  needed  to  facilitate  such  transactions ;  also  what  improve- 
ments can  be  made  in  the  banking  systems  of  the  American  countries 
with  special  reference  to  international  banking  relations. 

(d)  A   Common  Monetary  Standard. — The  Central  and  South 
American  countries  have  various  monetary  units  ranging  in  value 
from  the  bolivar  of  Venezuela  to  the  Uruguayan  peso.     Interna- 
tional exchange  among  the  American  countries  would  be  facilitated 
if  a  common  monetary  standard  were  adopted,  as  was  done  by  the 
countries  belonging  to  the  Latin  and  Scandinavian  Monetary  Con- 
ventions.   There  should  be  a  discussion  of  the  feasability  of  such 
an  agreement  among  all  the  American  nations. 


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